Basic outlines of a new hypothesis on physical reality
aa r X i v : . [ phy s i c s . g e n - ph ] A p r Basic outlines of a new hypothesis on physical reality
R. Alvargonz´alez and L. S. Soto
Facultad de F´ısica, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain (Dated: November 15, 2018)The papers mentioned in the bibliography lead to this new hypothesis which constitutes a widepanorama of the physical reality. Its coherence and its simplicity are virtues that make interesantto gaze upon it.We feel grateful to M. J. Sparnaay and to S. K. Lamoreaux whose measurements on zero-pointradiation have been a strong link between our reasonings and the physical reality, and we also feelgrateful to Timothy H. Boyer whose works on zero-point radiation have been a welcomed help.
I. BASIC OUTLINES AT COSMOLOGICALEVEL (SEE [1] AND [2]) w + x + y + z = ( R i ) .1.2) Photons are “packets of energy” which are char-acterised by travelling at the same velocity, c , andpossessing the same quantity of action, h . They aredifferentiated by their wavelengths, λ , and their en-ergies, E λ = hc/λ .1.3) The initial photons were distributed equally in ev-ery possible direction. As a result, the Universe hascontinued to expand at the speed of light in everydirection, since its beginning at t = 0. Therefore,when a period of time t has elapsed from t = 0, theUniverse is configured as the 3-dimensional spheri-cal surface w + x + y + z = ( R i + ct ) .1.4) The condition w + x + y + z = ( R i + ct ) de-termines that every point of space is subjected to atension, whose intensity E is directly related to thecurvature of space 1 / ( R i + ct ). The value of E istherefore the same at any moment, for all points inspace, and lessens equally at all of them with thepassing of time.1.5) The constant increase in the radius of the Uni-verse implies a constant reduction in E , and conse-quently, the existence of:– An energy flow, zero-point radiation, which isinherent to space, and consequently possessesa relativistically invariant spectrum. For thisto be so, its photons must have trajecto-ries distributed equally along all directions ofspace, and the abundance of the photons mustbe inversely proportional to the cubes of theirwavelengths. The density of this energy flowis directly proportional to the cube of the cur-vature.– A centrifugal energy flow, whose intensity isdirectly proportional to the 4 th power of thecurvature.1.6) The wavelength of the most energetic photons ofzero-point radiation is directly proportional to the length of the radius of the Universe, so that thedensity of the energy of that radiation in the Uni-verse lessens in direct proportion to the cube of theradius, and the total amount of that energy remainsconstant as the length of the radius increases.1.7) Many of the initial photons mentioned in 1.2, be-come configured as elementary particles. They re-volve round axes passing through their centres, andbecause of their configuration, do so in such a wayas to possess a spin of ~ /
2, and a tangential velocityof c at all their points.1.8) The velocity of the photons, c , is an absolute ceilingwhich cannot be attained by elementary particles[6].1.9) Elementary particles can come together to formhigher-order entities, atoms, which possess prop-erties which go beyond those of their components.Atoms can come together in higher-order entities,molecules, which also possess properties which gobeyond those of their components.1.10) The objects which we can perceive are made up toaggregations of very great numbers of atoms andmolecules. The stars are enormous cosmic objectswhich emit light.1.11) The sun is a star, around which orbit many cosmicobjects which are unable to emit light. The planets,including Earth, are the 9 largest of these.1.12) The galaxies are inmense structures, made up tothousands of millions of stars. The sun is a star inthe Milky Way, our galaxy. There are thousands ofmillions of other galaxies at distances of millions oflight-years from ours.1.13) Within the Universe, whose radius is R U = R i + ct ,we must distinguish between the Material Universe,whose radius is R U m < R U , and within it, the Visi-ble Universe, made up of those objects which we areable to observe or which we could become able toobserve, since the velocity at which they are mov-ing away, because of the expansion of the MaterialUniverse, is less than that of light.The Visible Universe is therefore configured as aspherical dome on the 3-dimensional spherical sur-face w + x + y + z = ( R U m ) , whose volume is: V U v = 2 πR U m ( ϕ − sin ϕ cos ϕ ), where ϕ is the anglebetween the radius which reaches the centre of thedome, and any of the radii which reach the lessercircumference which forms its base. The volumeof the Visible Universe must therefore represent afraction of the volume of the Material Universe of ϕ −
12 sin ϕ π . t = 0 and R U = R i . The configuration of the Universe as aspherical surface of radius R U = R i + ct impliesthat all its points lie at the same distance from itscentre, and that the value of t is the same for all ofthem.According to the Special Theory of Relativity, thelaws of Physics are the same at all points of theMaterial Universe, which requires that the lapse oftime between t = 0 and t m , the moment of genera-tion of the last elementary particle from the initialphotons, is relatively insignificant. II. BASIC OUTLINES AT QUANTIC LEVEL(SEE [3], [4] AND [6] e, m e , c ), inwhich the basic magnitudes are the quantum ofelectrical charge, e , the mass of the electron, m e ,and the speed of light, c . In this system, the unitof length is l e = e m − e c − , and the unit of time is t e = e m − e c − .2.2) Photons, which are energy packets moving at thespeed of light, c , following rectilinear trajecto-ries and possessing the same quantity of action, h = (2 π/α ) e c = (2 π/α ) m e l e t − e , are differenti-ated by their wavelengths λl e , and their energies E λx = hc/λ x = (2 π/α ) m e c · λ − x . 2.3) The substance of the photons undulates alongcylindrical helices of length λ x and radius R = λ x /α , which gives them a spin of s = ~ . The wave-length of the photon whose energy is E e = m e c is λ e = (2 π/α ) l e , and that of the photon of energy E x = m x c is λ x = (2 π/α ) l e m e m x .2.4) The transformation of a photon into an elementaryparticle does not require any change in its sub-stance. It remains the same energy packet, witha quantity of action h and wavelength λ , which,instead of moving in a straight line as part of a se-ries of waves, turns round on itself around a sphereof radius αλ/ π , thus becoming an separate entity,revolving with a spin of ~ / c at all its points.2.5) The basic characteristics of elementary particlesare:– Their mass, m x = E x · c − , where E x = h c λ − x is the energy of the photon of wavelength λ x .– Their radius, r x = αλ x / π , where λ x is thewavelength of the photon whose energy is m x c .– Their spin ~ /
2, which derives from rotationaround an axis passing through the centre ofthe particle.– The equation m x r x = e c − , which is the pri-mordial quantic threshold as concerns elemen-tary particles.2.6) The centrifugal force inherent to the spin of ele-mentary particles with a spin of ~ / m x r x = e c − requires that therecannot exist elementary particles with a spin of ~ / r e = 1 l e .2.9) The centrifugal force of the particles of mass m x >m e is equal to m x ( m e ) r x ( l e ) · c = m x m e l e t e . In other words, it is equal to that of the electronmultiplied by ( m x /m e ) . The surface of such aparticle is equal to 4 π ( r x ) , i. e. ( m e /m x ) timesthat of the electron, and therefore the centripetalforce which derives from its interactions with zero-point radiation is ( m e /m x ) − times that of the saidcentrifugal force.In the case of the proton, m x = 1836 m e , and thecentripetal force on the surface of the particle is1 . × times less than the centrifugal force.The enormous imbalance between the centrifugaland centripetal forces causes the appearance of theenergy flows required to balance them. These en-ergy flows possess, at a distance of 1 l e from the cen-tre of the particle, an intensity per l e of m x l e t − e per t e , and at distance of 1 l x = l e m e ( m x ) − , theyhave an intensity of m x l e t − e per l e per t e . In otherwords, they decrease in proportion to the distanceto the centre, and not in proportion to the squareof that distance. This is due to the interferencesinherent to the small size of the angles betweenthe flows which fall on adjacent points, and to theshortness of the distance between those points.At distances from the centre which are greater than1 l e , the intensity of these flows decreases accordingto their squares.2.10) Keeping in mind what we have explained in 2.7,we seee that the energy flows aroused in order tobalance out the centripetal and centrifugal forceson the surface of particles of mass m x > m e causean apparent attraction between two such particles,which is equal to the gravitational attraction be-tween them. In the case of electrons, where thereis no reason for such energy flows to arise, the ap-parent attraction derives from the interactions ofthe particle with zero-point radiation [6].2.11) Again remembering what we have explained in 2.7,we realise that the forces of repulsion inherent tothe mutual electrostatic rejection between protons,and the energy flows caused by the imbalance be-tween the centripetal and the centrifugal forces atthe surfaces of protons and neutrons, balance eachother out within the atomic nucleus, when the num-ber of protons is approximately equal to the num-ber of neutrons, and the masses of both protons andneutrons are very approximately equal to 1851 m e .This explains the cohesion of atomic nuclei, thecharacteristics of protons, and the strong interac-tion [6].2.12) Neutrinos are particles which posses a mass verymuch smaller than that of electrons, and have spin1/2 and no charge. III. BASIC FORCES (SEE [3], [5] AND [6] (cid:18) m x = αhc πr x · c (cid:19) , and inversely proportional to the squares ofthe distance between them: f G = m x m y ( d xy ) · G, where f G = gravitational attraction, d xy =the distance between the particle with mass m x and that with mass m y , and r x = the ra-dius of the particle with mass m x . In otherwords, gravitational forces.– Forces opposing the change in the state ofmovement of any elementary particle, whichderive from the lateral relativistic Doppler ef-fect on its interactions with zero-point radia-tion, and which are proportional to the prod-uct of the mass of the particle multiplied bythe intensity of the change in its state of move-ment, i. e. by the acceleration f x = m x a = m x (cid:18) ∂v∂t (cid:19) . In other words, inertial forces.– Forces deriving from the interaction of therotation of elementary particles with a spinof ~ /
2, with zero-point radiation. In otherwords, electrostatic forces.– Forces of weak interaction, deriving from theinteraction of the rotation of elementary par-ticles with zero-point radiation (still to bedemonstrated).3.2) Forces of interaction arise between nucleons withinthe atomic nucleus. These derive from the energyflows which arise to balance out the centrifugal andcentripetal forces on the surface of the nucleons,whose radii are limited by the quantic threshold m x r x = e c − .We must consider, by comparison with the case of theelectron, the curvature of the Universe which would berequired to explain these forces; this could be the samecurvature that Einstein suggested would be produced bythe presence of masses within space. IV. BASIC CONSTANTS AT THECOSMOLOGICAL LEVEL (SEE [1]) / smegaparsec < H U <
90 km / smegaparsec;1 megaparsec = 3 . × light-years.Improving the precision of our knowledge of thevalue of the Hubble constant is one of the mostimportant challenges of cosmology at the start ofthe XXI century.4.2) The age of the Universe, t U . Assuming H U =70 km / s10 parsec , we calculate that 1 . × yearsmust have elapsed in order for there to exist lumi-nous objects which move away from us at speedsnear that of light, because of the expansion of theUniverse.The lack of precision in our knowledge of the valueof the Hubble constant is accompanied by an ana-logical imprecision in our knowledge of t U . Also,the value we have obtained is only a lower limitfor t U , since there could exist cosmic objects whichhave moved away from us at speeds greater thanthat of light, because of the Universe’s expansion.On the other hand, the age of the Universe would beless than what we have calculated here if it provedpossible to see two images of a very distant cosmicobject by looking in two diametrically opposed di-rections. See figures 2 in [2] and 3 in [2], as well asthe related texts.4.3) The relation between the length of the radius ofthe Universe, R U = 1 . × light-years =3 . × q λ , and the wavelength of the photonpossessing most energy in zero-point radiation x =5 . × q λ , k U = R U /x = 7 . × .4.4) The gravitational constant G , whose value in the( e, m e , c ) system is expressed as G = G e (cid:18) em e (cid:19) ,where G e = 2 . × − . The value of G remains constant, and the variations in the numer-ical coefficient G e are those which are required inorder that G does not change, as wavelength x ofthe photon which possesses the greatest energy inzero-point radiation increases, in proportion to theincrease in the radius of the Universe.The expression G = ( q λ ) c π ∗ is invariant, as willbe seen in 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4, since q λ , c , and ∗ areinvariant. V. BASIC CONSTANTS AT THE QUANTICLEVEL (SEE [6]) α , which is therelation between the wavelength λ E of the photonpossessing an energy of E = hc/λ E , and the radiusof the fermions of mass E/c .5.2) The velocity of electromagnetic radiation throughempty space, c . The value of c is an upper limitwhich cannot be attained by fermions. 5.3) The quantum of wavelength of electromagneticradiation, q λ , whose measurement is q λ =(2 πα ) / L P , where L P = (cid:18) ~ Gc (cid:19) / is the Plancklength.5.4) The basic quantum m x r x = e c − , where m x isthe mass of a fermion and r x is its radius. Thisquantum, to which we will here give the symbol ∗ , isthe necessary and sufficient condition for fermionsto have a spin of ~ / c and ∗ . They include the following:– Electrical resistance ( W e ) = c − =3 . × − s · cm − .– Planck constant h = 2 πα ∗ · c .– Elementary charge e = ( ∗ ) / · c .– Flow of magnetic induction ( ϕ e ) = ( ∗ ) / .– Magnetic field ( B e ) = ( ∗ ) / c − .– Magnetic permeability ( µ ) = c − .– Momentum of rotation ~ = ∗ α c .Where there is no symbol to designate the quan-tum, we have used that of the magnitude in ques-tion, placing it in brackets. REFERENCES [1] R. Alvargonz´alez and L. S. Soto: “Zero-point radi-ation and the Big-Bang”. arXiv : 0705 3722 VI [physicsgen-phis], 25 May 2007.[2] R. Alvargonz´alez and L. S. Soto: “An analysis of theBig-Bang theory according to classical physics”. arXiv-physics /0408016.VI, 3 Aug 2004.[3] R. Alvargonz´alez:
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