Large format imaging spectrograph for the Large Submillimeter Telescope (LST)
K. Kohno, R. Kawabe, Y. Tamura, A. Endo, J. J. A. Baselmans, K. Karatsu, A. K. Inoue, K. Moriwaki, N. H. Hayatsu, N. Yoshida, Y. Yoshimura, B. Hatsukade, H. Umehata, T. Oshima, T. Takekoshi, A. Taniguchi, P. D. Klaassen, T. Mroczkowski, C. Cicone, F. Bertoldi, H. Dannerbauer, T. Tosaki
LLarge format imaging spectrograph for the LargeSubmillimeter Telescope (LST)
Kotaro Kohno a,b , Ryohei Kawabe c,d , Yoichi Tamura e , Akira Endo f,g , Jochem J. A.Baselmans h,f , Kenichi Karatsu h,f , Akio K. Inoue i,j,k , Kana Moriwaki l , Natsuki H. Hayatsu l ,Naoki Yoshida l,m,b , Yuki Yoshimura a , Bunyo Hatsukade a , Hideki Umehata n,a , Tai Oshima c ,Tatsuya Takekoshi o,a , Akio Taniguchi e , Pamela D. Klaassen p , Tony Mroczkowski q , ClaudiaCicone r , Frank Bertoldi s,t , Helmut Dannerbauer u,v , and Tomoka Tosaki wa Institute of Astronomy, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka,Tokyo 181-0015, Japan b Research Center for the Early Universe, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan c National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan d The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo181-8588, Japan e Division of Particle and Astrophysical Science, Graduate School of Science, NagoyaUniversity, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan f Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University ofTechnology, Delft, The Netherlands g Kavli Institute of NanoScience, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology,Delft, The Netherlands h SRON – Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands i Department of Physics, School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science andEngineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan j Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering,Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan k Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Faculty of Design Technology, OsakaSangyo University, 3-1-1 Nakagaito, Daito, Osaka 574-8530, Japan l Department of Physics, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo,Tokyo 113-0033, Japan m Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), UT Institutes forAdvanced Study, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8583,Japan n RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan o Kitami Institute of Technology, 165 Koen-cho, Kitami, Hokkaido 090-8507, Japan p UK Astronomy Technology Centre, Royal Observatory Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, EdinburghEH9 3HJ, UK q European Southern Observatory (ESO), Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 2, Garching 85748,Germany r Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029, Blindern, 0315 Oslo,Norway s Max-Planck-Institut f¨ur Radioastronomie, Auf dem H¨ugel 69, D-53121 Bonn, Germany t Argelander-Institut f¨ur Astronomie, University at Bonn, Auf dem H¨ugel 71, D-53121 Bonn,Germany a r X i v : . [ a s t r o - ph . I M ] F e b Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Canarias, E-38205 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain v Universidad de La Laguna, Departamento de Astrof´ısica, E-38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain w Joetsu University of Education, Yamayashiki-machi, Joetsu, Niigata 943-8512, Japan
ABSTRACT
We present a conceptual study of a large format imaging spectrograph for the Large Submillimeter Telescope(LST) and the Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST). Recent observations of high-redshiftgalaxies indicate the onset of earliest star formation just a few 100 million years after the Big Bang (i.e., z = 12–15), and LST/AtLAST will provide a unique pathway to uncover spectroscopically-identified “firstforming galaxies” in the pre-reionization era, once it will be equipped with a large format imaging spectrograph.We propose a 3-band (200, 255, and 350 GHz), medium resolution ( R = 2,000) imaging spectrograph with ∼ drilling survey(3,500 hr) will capture a large number of [O iii ] 88 µ m (and [C ii ] 158 µ m) emitters at z = 8–9, and constrain[O iii ] luminosity functions at z > Keywords: galaxy formation and evolution, fine structure lines ([O iii ] , [C ii ] ), kinetic inductance detectors(KIDs), integrated superconducting spectrometer (ISS), DESHIMA/MOSAIC/KATANA, imaging spectrograph,The Large Submillimeter Telescope (LST), The Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST)
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent multi-wavelength surveys of distant galaxies have revealed that the majority of the star-forming activitiesat a redshift z = 1–3, where the cosmic star formation rate densities peak, is obscured by dust, emphasizingimportance of the study of dust-obscured activities in the universe. However, the roles of the dust-obscured star-formation beyond the redshift of z > Hubble
Ultra Deep Field suggest that the dust obscured star formation plays rather minor roles among such star-forminggalaxies selected by rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
1, 2
On the other hand,
Herschel observations of “red”SPIRE sources suggest elevated star-formation rate densities up to z ∼ which is also supported by recentALMA observations. Latest ALMA studies also demonstrate the presence of sub/millimeter-selected galaxieswithout any significant counterpart seen in the optical and near-infrared:
HST -dark galaxies.
Althoughsuch a class of galaxies has been known from the beginning of the discovery of the submillimeter galaxies(SMGs), recent ALMA observations unveil much fainter sub/millimeter sources ( S ∼ a few 10–100 µ Jy),which were unable to isolate before due to the source confusion limit of submillimeter-wave survey facilities likeSCUBA/SCUBA2 on JCMT 15-m telescope and AzTEC on ASTE 10-m telescope. And more importantly, suchfaint sub/millimeter galaxies are much more ubiquitous and therefore responsible for the bulk of the cosmicinfrared background-light (CIB).
5, 10, 11
The importance of
HST -dark but IRAC-detected (a.k.a. H -dropout)galaxies as a key tracer of the early phases of massive galaxy formation at z ∼
6, 12 but thedifficulty of obtaining spectroscopic redshifts for such
HST -dark galaxies hampers the physical characterizationof these sources. After pioneering spectral scan observations of the
Hubble
Deep Field North using IRAM Plateaude Bure Interferometer, ALMA and NOEMA have been used to search for millimeter-wave line emitters without any priors in the optical/near-infrared bands, but the total surveyed area has been (and will be) limitedto tiny patches of the sky because of the narrowness of the ALMA/NOEMA field-of-view. All of this progressmotivates us to design a wide-area spectroscopic survey of dust-enshrouded galaxies in a more systematic way. Recent discoveries of star-forming galaxies at z = 8–11 and candidate passive galaxies at z ∼ indicatethe onset of the earliest star formation just a few 100 million years after the Big Bang, i.e., z ∼ Further author information: (Send correspondence to K.K.)K.K.: E-mail: [email protected] 1. The redshift evolution of the cosmic star-formation rate density, illustrating two inconsistent trends of measure-ments at z = 4 −
8, i.e., “dust-rich, actively star-forming universe” (suggested by
Herschel - FIR, long- γ -ray bursts, andcosmic infrared background-light (CIB) lensing analysis with Planck ) and “dust-poor, calm early universe” (suggested byobservations of Lyman break galaxies with dust-extinction corrections). dawn. Although both ALMA and
JWST /NIRSpec can detect [O iii ] 88 µ m and [C iii ] 1907˚A+ C iii ] 1909˚A lines,respectively, at z > >
100 deg near-infrared imaging survey at λ = 2–5 µ m with a modest depth( ∼ m AB ) would be the optimum option to find spectroscopic follow-up targets at z ∼
15 (Inoue et al.) butthe Roman Space Telescope will have no survey capability at λ > µ m.Here we argue that next-generation large submillimeter single-dish telescopes optimized for wide-area, broad-band spectral coverage surveys, such as the Large Submillimeter Telescope (LST) ∗ and the Atacama LargeAperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) † , will provide a unique pathway for that purpose once thesetelescopes are equipped with a large format imaging spectrograph. In this paper, we present a conceptualstudy of a 3-band imaging spectrograph, which specifically aims for the [O iii ] 88 µ m and the [C ii ] 158 µ mtomography at z = 4–8 (with [C ii ] ) and z = 8–16 (with [O iii ] ), based on the KATANA concept (Karatsu etal. 2019) ‡ using the technologies of the integrated superconducting spectrometer (ISS)
29, 30 and a large-formatimaging array like A-MKID. Our goal here is not to propose a very detailed specification of the observinginstrument, but to provide a conceivable observing instrument case based on a set of science requirements; itwill give some insights and implications for further investigations of the observing instrument and technologiesfor LST/AtLAST. A brief overview and updates of the LST project are also given.
2. THE LARGE SUBMILLIMETER TELESCOPE
The LST project was originally discussed as the planning of a next-generation telescope for sub/millimeter-wavelengths that could inherit both the large collecting area of the Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO) 45-mtelescope and the submillimeter capabilities of Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment (ASTE) 10-m ∗ † https://atlast-telescope.org ‡ https://agenda.infn.it/event/15448/contributions/95630/ elescope. The current major specifications of the LST, along with the conceptual design and key science behindhave been summarized in Kawabe et al. (2016). In brief, the LST will be a 50-m diameter high-precision (45 µ m rms) telescope for wide-area imaging and spectroscopic surveys with a field-of-view of > φ primarilyfocusing on the 70–420 GHz frequency range, with a capability for high frequencies up to 1 THz using an innerhigh-precision surface. A novel concept of a millimeter wavefront sensor that allows real-time sensing of thesurface, which will be a key to establish “millimetric adaptive optics (MAO)”, has been proposed by Tamura,Y., et al. Statistical approaches to efficient atmospheric noise removal for submillimeter-wave spectroscopyhave been proposed and implemented by Taniguchi, A., et al. for e.g., NRO 45-m telescope and DESHIMAon ASTE. One of the recent major milestones of the LST project is the master plan 2020 (MP2020) led by the ScienceCouncil of Japan (SCJ), which aims to set the list of high priority large academic research projects in Japan.The LST project was invited to give a presentation at two MP2020 symposia in September 2018 and January2019, which were organized by the astronomy and astrophysics sub-committee of SCJ, to discuss the progress ofthe project since the previous master plan activity (MP2017) and the status of the international collaborationincluding the EU-led AtLAST project. A support letter from the AtLAST community was highly appreciated.Now the LST is formally listed as one of the large academic projects in the astronomy and astrophysics fieldin MP2020, which was announced in January 2020. During these activities, a merger between the AtLASTand LST projects has been intensively discussed. After the success of the 3.5 M Euro ERC program for theAtLAST design study in 2021–2024, we anticipate the merger in 2024 where the design study will end. Thereare some apparent inconsistencies of telescope specifications such as the target surface accuracy and the field ofview, which are expected to be discussed further during the AtLAST design study in coming years. A next stepforward in the LST would be a proposal to National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) to launch astudy group of the LST under a support from the community in Japan. Figure 2 displays the LST timelines andmilestones, along with those of the AtLAST. Figure 2. LST project timeline and milestones.igure 3. Summary of the major specifications of DESHIMA, MOSAIC, and the proposed 3-band imaging spectro-graph based on the KATANA concept, which will exploit technologies of the integrated superconducting spectrometer(DESHIMA) and a large-format imaging array (like A-MKID). Pictures of DESHIMA and A-MKID, along with theproposed array configuration of MOSAIC, are inserted.
3. FROM DESHIMA TO KATANA: 3-BAND IMAGING SPECTROGRAPH
We propose a 3-band (200, 255, and 350 GHz), medium resolution ( R =2,000) imaging spectrograph with ∼
29, 37, 38
DESHIMA 2.0, which will have a much wider frequency coverage with a better optical efficiency,will be deployed in ASTE for full science operation in mid-2021. MOSAIC, a multi-pixel version of DESHIMA, hasbeen proposed for the Large Millimeter Telescope Alfonso Serrano (LMT) § and discussed during the GuillermoHaro 2018 Workshop. Figure 3 presents a summary of major specifications of DESHIMA, MOSAIC, and theproposed 3-band imaging spectrograph with the KATANA concept. Here “KATANA” is for the existing facili-ties like ASTE and LMT, whereas KATANA 2.0 is for the future survey telescopes in the early 2030s, i.e., theLST/AtLAST. Figure 4 summarizes the frequency ranges and corresponding redshifts of [O iii ] and [C ii ] , alongwith the conceptual view of a fiducial 1-deg drilling survey.One of the key requirements for the instrument is a spectral resolution R of 2,000 (a velocity resolution dv of 150 km s − ), because the target sources at z > ∼
100 km s − , as demonstrated by reported [O iii ] 88 µ m line emitters at z = 7–9 ( dv =a few 10–150 km s − ).
23, 24, 39
This is currently the limiting factor of the spatial pixels because we need > dz of around unity for each band (Figure 4). The line mapping speedof the proposed configurations was computed based on the achievements with the DESHIMA 1.0 along withthe reasonable assumptions of the telescope surface accuracy (45 µ m rms) and a precipitable water vapor (0.5mm). We set a 5 σ line sensitivity of 1 mJy (peak flux) or 0.15 Jy km s − at Band-3, which corresponds to a[O iii ] 88 µ m line luminosity of 4 × L (cid:12) at z ∼ iii ] 88 µ m line luminosityfunctions from the UV luminosity functions
40, 41 and their extrapolation (Inoue et al.). Theoretical simulations also support the validity of the target line sensitivity.We find that a 1-deg survey spending 3,500 hrs with the proposed 3-band configuration will uncover a § http://lmtgtm.org tatistically large number of [O iii ] 88 µ m line emitters at z = 8–9. A fraction of them will be [O iii ] - [C ii ] dualline emitters because [C ii ] can also be bright at z ∼ Furthermore, Band-2 is designed to coverthe same redshift range in the [N ii ] 122 µ m line. Although the nitrogen line must be significantly weaker than[O iii ] and [C ii ] , stacking may work to assess the average ISM properties, such as metallicity, radiation field, andgas density. The expected number of sources for the redshift bins of ∼
12 and 16 is highly uncertain at thisstage, but we will be able to put a meaningful observational constraint on the [O iii ] 88 µ m luminosity functionsat z ∼
12 and 16. A wider survey with this depth will be necessary for better statistics in any case, implying forthe necessity for more detectors to provide a higher line mapping speed.
Figure 4. The proposed 1 deg drilling survey using the KATANA 3-band imaging spectrograph, which is designed toblindly uncover [O iii ] 88 µ m line emitters at 3 specific redshift ranges. The lowest frequency band also corresponds to a[C ii ] 158 µ m redshift range of z = 8.3–9.0, allowing to detect [O iii ] - [C ii ] dual line emitters at this redshift range. Withthe observing time of 3,500 hrs, we will reach a 5 σ line sensitivity of 0.5–1.0 mJy (peak flux) or 0.074–0.15 Jy km s − ,which are translated into a [O iii ] 88 µ m line luminosity of ∼ (4 − × L (cid:12) . Note that with this line sensitivity we candetect both [O iii ] and [C ii ] lines of MACS0416 Y1 at z = 8 .
4. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS4.1 ISS option
One of the technical issues is how to realize R = 2,000 with the ISS technology. DESHIMA1.0 has a coplanarwaveguide (CPW) signal line coupled to planar filters, but suffers from large radiation losses. Microstrip filterswill eliminate such losses, but then we need transparent deposited dielectrics. The development will require abetter understanding of the noise behavior of a deposited dielectric, which has two level systems (TLS) noise. nother challenge is how to implement > ∼ z = 12 and 16, we needan even wider surveys with this depth). It implies that the cost of the proposed imaging spectrograph can becomparable to the telescope itself. What is the anticipated cost per channel in 2030s? High spectral resolution ( R ∼ or dv ∼ − ) is available, but such high R may not be mandatory for theproposed high-redshift galaxy survey using emission lines; a moderate R (a few 1,000) can work. Nevertheless, theheterodyne receivers are indeed an attractive option as demonstrated by a 275–500 GHz heterodyne receiver withan instantaneous IF bandwidth of 4–21 GHz, which exploits the high-current-density superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) junctions and related technologies. It is therefore conceivable to develop a dedicatedmoderate-resolution digital spectrometer system to be connected to such a novel wide-band heterodyne receiver.Another technical challenge is implementation of ∼ pixel heterodyne receiver array, where power con-sumption of a large number of cryogenic low-noise amplifiers and complexity of the structure can be an issue,although possible solutions have been proposed and investigated.
47, 48
A heterodyne receiver array with ∼
5. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
Successive detection of the [O iii ] 88 µ m line in z = 7–9 galaxies along with the mounting evidence for theearliest star formation at z ∼ drilling survey (3,500 hrs) withthe proposed 3-band configuration (covering 200, 255, and 350 GHz band, 1,000–3,000 spatial pixels per band, R = 2,000 spectroscopy, yielding ∼ iii ] lineemitters at z ∼ iii ] - [C ii ] dual line detection along with [N ii ] 122 µ m constraint by stacking),and a significant chance of uncovering [O iii ] emitter candidates up to at z ∼
12 and ∼
16. Development of low-lossfilms, which requires better understanding of noise behavior of dielectrics, is necessary for realizing R = 2,000with ISS. How to implement > ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research NWO (Vidi grant no. 639.042.423,NWO Medium Investment grant no. 614.061.611 DESHIMA), the European Research Council ERC (ERC-CoG-2014 - Proposal no. 648135 MOSAIC), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science JSPS (KAKENHI grantnos. JP25247019 and JP17H06130), National Astronomical Observatory of Japan NAOJ ALMA Scientific Re-search (grant no. 2018-09B), NAOJ Research Coordination Committee, National Institutes of Natural Sciences(grant no. 1901-0102), and the Grant for Joint Research Program of the Institute of Low Temperature Science,Hokkaido University.
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