The chemistry of making color in art

Abstract

Abstract In this review, the main technological processes involved in the production of color in glasses, ceramics and pigments are reported. Iron (as oxides or dispersed ion) is the main responsible of the color in archeological and historical ceramics and glasses, but other d-metals can be also found (Cu, Ag, Co, Cr, Ni) as nano-particles or dispersed ions. The final coloration is usually a result of the sapient choice of raw materials and firing conditions (temperature, atmosphere). Some pigments are chosen to represent the different, often sophisticated, chemical processes that have been used during the history to produce them: solid state reaction (Egyptian and Chinese Blue, Naples Yellow, Ultramarine Blue), host-guest complexation (Maya Blue), corrosion/redox processes (Lead White, Verdigris), wet/solution synthesis (Prussian Blue, Cadmium Yellow). In addition, a brief overview on the vast production of modern compounds (inorganic and mostly organic) is given. This review shows how behind the artistic choice and way of expression lies a high level of technological skill and chemical knowledge achieved/reached by (ancient) craftsmen to obtain the desired colors.