Germanium: A review of its US demand, uses, resources, chemistry, and separation technologies

Abstract

Abstract Germanium (Ge) is one of the critical elements of modern technologies, with supply risk, inefficient production, and increased demand. It is used in high technology applications such as infrared systems, fiber optics, polymer catalysis, electronics, and solar cells. Its demand is expected to increase due to lack of suitable substitutes, increasing demand for solar cells and 5G networks, and the continuous increasing trend of Ge demand for the past 20 years. Globally, 130 tonnes (t) of Ge are being produced (2020) primarily in China. Germanium is recovered as a byproduct from Zn-refineries and coal fly ash. Yet very low amount (