Geochemical characterization of bricks used in historical monuments of 14-18th century CE of Haryana region of the Indian subcontinent: Reference to raw materials and production technique

Abstract

Abstract The historical monumental bricks dated 14–18th century CE of Haryana region of the Indian subcontinent were examined to assess their geochemical characteristics, and to understand the raw materials and production technique used in the brick manufacturing.\xa0The results showed that the bricks were found\xa0hydraulic in nature\xa0with low shrinkage and high mechanical and physico-sintering properties, containing high concentration of silica and low concentration of calcium.\xa0The combined results of applied methods (XRF, XRD, FTIR, TGA, and SEM) suggest that the bricks were\xa0fired at temperatures around 900\xa0°C,\xa0under\xa0oxidising conditions\xa0through traditional brick manufacturing technology.\xa0The observed variability in the bricks corresponds to different construction phases of monumental structures.\xa0These results also revealed the\xa0geochemical\xa0nature of raw materials and durability of monumental bricks, subjected to various types of weathering phenomena in aggressive environments of the Yamuna River basin. This reference work has\xa0an\xa0important scientific value for the restoration and conservation of historical monuments with respect to longevity and durability of brick masonry.