Targeting regorafenib-induced toxicity through inhibition of gut microbial β-glucuronidases.

Abstract

Regorafenib (Stivarga®) is an oral small molecule kinase inhibitor used to treat metastatic colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinomas, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Diarrhea is one of the most frequently observed adverse reactions associated with regorafenib. This toxicity may arise from the reactivation of the inactive regorafenib-glucuronide to regorafenib in the gastrointestinal tract by gut microbial β-glucuronidase (GUS) enzymes. We sought to unravel the molecular basis of regorafenib-glucuronide processing by human intestinal GUS enzymes, and to examine the potential inhibition of these enzymes. Using a panel of 31 unique gut microbial GUS enzymes derived from the 279 mapped from the human gut microbiome, we found that only four were capable of regorafenib-glucuronide processing. Using crystal structures as a guide, we pinpointed the molecular features unique to these enzymes that confer regorafenib-glucuronide processing activity. Furthermore, a pilot screen identified the FDA-approved drug raloxifene as an inhibitor of regorafenib-reactivation by the GUS proteins discovered. Novel synthetic raloxifene analogs exhibited improved potency in both in vitro and ex vivo studies. Taken together, these data establish that regorafenib reactivation is exclusively catalyzed by gut microbial enzymes, and that these enzymes are amenable to targeted inhibition. Our results unravel key molecular details of regorafenib reactivation in the GI tract and provide a potential pathway to improve clinical outcomes with regorafenib.