A typology of prescription drug monitoring programs: a latent transition analysis of the evolution of programs from 1999 to 2016

Abstract

BACKGROUND AND AIMS\nPrescription drug monitoring programs (PDMP), defined as state-level databases used in the United States that collect prescribing information when controlled substances are dispensed, have varied substantially between states and over time. Little is known about the combinations of PDMP features that, collectively, may produce the greatest impact on prescribing and overdose. We aimed to (1) identify the types of PDMP models that have developed from 1999 to 2016, (2) estimate whether states have transitioned across PDMP models over time and (3) examine whether states have adopted different types of PDMP models in response to the burden of opioid overdose.\n\n\nMETHODS\nA latent transition analysis of PDMP models based on an adaptation of nine PDMP characteristics classified by prescription opioid policy experts as potentially important determinants of prescribing practices and prescription opioid overdose events.\n\n\nRESULTS\nWe divided the time-period into three intervals (1999-2004, 2005-09, 2010-16), and found three distinct PDMP classes in each interval. The classes in the first and second interval can be characterized as no/weak , proactive and reactive types of PDMPs, and in the third interval as weak , cooperative and proactive . The meaning of these classes changed over time: until 2009, states in the no/weak class had no active PDMP, whereas states in the proactive class were more likely to proactively provide unsolicited information to PDMP users, provide open access to law enforcement, and require more frequent data reporting than states in the reactive class. In 2010-16, the weak class resembled the reactive class in previous intervals. States in the cooperative class in 2010-16 were less likely than states in the proactive class to provide unsolicited reports proactively or to provide open access to law enforcement; however, they were more likely than those in the proactive class to share PDMP data with other states and to report more federal drug schedules.\n\n\nCONCLUSIONS\nSince 1999, US states have tended to transition to more robust classes of prescription drug monitoring programs. Opioid overdose deaths in prior years predicted the state s prescription drug monitoring program class but did not predict transitions between prescription drug monitoring program classes over time.