Egbert van der Zee

Analysing beyond the environmental bubble dichotomy: how the 2010 World Cup case helped to bridge the host–guest gap

Hallmark events are favoured by policy-makers due to their assumed effects on destination image, social and infrastructural developments and economic benefits. They are also criticised because these targets are seldom met. However, little is known about the dynamics of forming a tourism destination image (TDI) under the influence of event visitors’ travel experiences. In this paper, the three-gap model was used to provide a better understanding of this dialectic process from the travellers’ perspective. The three-gap model describes which factors influence TDI and highlights the importance of pre-visit expectations compared to travel experiences. There was a special focus on the ‘environmental bubble’ as a relevant concept for destinations where safety might pose a real risk and present danger. The 2010 FIFA World Cup was chosen for an explorative multi-method case study, focusing on travelling Dutch fans. The results show that before the event, the international media and Dutch fans who planned to visit the event saw serious safety risks. However, supporters did not retreat into the provided environmental bubbles which might prevent them from contact with the host community and would limit authentic experiences. They used these bubbles rather as a launching pad for venturing into the country. A gap between expectation and experience was present, after their visit the Dutch fans evaluated South Africa more as a country which is safe to travel in. The paper concludes that when not organised too rigidly, environmental bubbles might pre-empt potentially negative gaps between visitors’ experiences and expectations. In turn, this may contribute to travellers feeling a greater sense of autonomy than implicitly assumed by tourist organisations, a change in their travel behaviour and their TDI.

‘Obesogenic’ School Food Environments? An Urban Case Study in The Netherlands

(1) Background: This study aimed to explore and define socio-economic (SES) differences in urban school food environments in The Netherlands. (2) Methods: Retail food outlets, ready-to-eat products, in-store food promotions and food advertisements in public space were determined within 400 m walking distance of all secondary schools in the 4th largest city of The Netherlands. Fisher’s exact tests were conducted. (3) Results: In total, 115 retail outlets sold ready-to-eat food and drink products during school hours. Fast food outlets were more often in the vicinity of schools in lower SES (28.6%) than in higher SES areas (11.5%). In general, unhealthy options (e.g., fried snacks, sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB)) were more often for sale, in-store promoted or advertised in comparison with healthy options (e.g., fruit, vegetables, bottled water). Sport/energy drinks were more often for sale, and fried snacks/fries, hamburgers/kebab and SSB were more often promoted or advertised in lower SES areas than in higher SES-areas. (4) Conclusion: In general, unhealthy food options were more often presented than the healthy options, but only a few SES differences were observed. The results, however, imply that efforts in all school areas are needed to make the healthy option the default option during school time.

Airbnb as an instigator of ‘tourism bubble’ expansion in Utrecht's Lombok neighbourhood

ABSTRACT The Airbnb phenomenon as part of the broader growth of the so-called collaborative economy has grabbed the attention of a growing number of tourism researchers. Among the topics explored have been investigations as to the spatial tendencies of Airbnb in cities and discussions concerning its effects, inter alia, on gentrification, over-touristification and eventual resident displacement. Recognizing that the majority of extant studies have been conducted either in major cities, which in their own right attract large numbers of visitors or in tourism-intensive smaller communities we chose to investigate what Airbnb growth means for a mid-sized city with a highly diversified economy, which is not yet over-touristified. Our focus was on the Dutch city of Utrecht. Through a geospatial and statistical analysis of AirDNA data, we explored the growth of Airbnbs in the city overall, focusing specifically on the phenomenons effects on the Lombok neighbourhood, a nascent ‘neo-bohemia’ neighbouring the city-centre tourist bubble. Our analysis reveals that although Airbnb activity in this neighbourhood is relatively recent there are signs suggesting that further touristification of parts of Lombok has ignited increased Airbnb activity. Moreover, there is a distance decay of Airbnb activity as one moves away from the city centre and from established tourism services including restaurants. These findings suggest that in an emerging neo-bohemian space such as Lombok, Airbnb takes on a role as instigator of urban tourism bubble expansion. The study ends with a call for further investigations to better understand the implications expanded Airbnb activity has, among others, on social justice within cities. For example, future investigations could examine the manner in which Airbnbs influence the everyday life of the residents of urban spaces and investigate the conflicts that might arise in Airbnb ghettoes between visitors and locals.

The Destination Triangle

Abstract Destinations are highly dynamic and complex systems requiring a responsive and relational governance system. Recent tourism literature proposes a network approach to destination management, but empirical evidence shows interactions in destinations remains low. Dominant stakeholders tend to control destination governance systems; less powerful ones are not actively included. This chapter schematizes the network of relations as a destination triangle made up of governance, supply side, and tourists. A quantitative study of tourists and a qualitative study of supply-side stakeholders show that the destination triangle is inappropriately adjusted. The supply side is not actively involved in destination management. The findings show that the absence of a relational management approach can impede initiatives.

Distribution of tourists within urban heritage destinations: a hot spot/cold spot analysis of TripAdvisor data as support for destination management

ABSTRACT The emergence of social media and Web 2.0 has a notable impact upon the tasks of destination managers as these platforms have developed into influential mechanisms affecting tourist behaviour. This paper shows how Destination Management Organizations (DMOs) can reap the benefits of the Web 2.0 revolution as it serves as an important source of user-generated information, bringing novel opportunities for data-driven destination management. To test the applicability of user-generated content for destination management, this paper analyses restaurant reviews from five Flemish art cities which were retrieved from the Web 2.0 platform TripAdvisor. Getis-Ord hot spot analysis revealed spatial clusters of frequently (‘hot spots’) and rarely (‘cold spots’) reviewed restaurants in four out of the five art cities. By comparing these spatial patterns, the digital footprints of tourists were uncovered and discussed with DMO directors. Found patterns appeared to reflect local policies aimed either at concentrating tourism, as in Bruges, the city with the most prominent hot spot, or spreading tourism over time and space as seen in Antwerp and Ghent where less prominent hot spots were present. The visualization proved to be a valuable input when discussing tourism management and fuelled the sharing of knowledge between the destinations.

Events: Cause or Consequence of Community Involvement

Throughout history, events have been bringing people together in a fixed and limited time and space to co-create an experience for participants, spectators, organisers and communities. Events are hosted to please crowds, increase the sense of place or to bring together traders, producers and costumers. Often, local elites such as politicians, prosperous individuals or inventive entrepreneurs play an important role in organising these events. However, the success of an event greatly depends on the involvement of ‘the commons’, that is, the local communities, as they are needed to provide the support, input and critical mass necessary for the event. Local communities are vital stakeholders in the co-creation processes that form successful events (van der Zee & Go, 2013), and the event can provide benefits for local communities if organised in an inclusive way (Jepson & Clarke, 2014). In order to be successful, the relationship between different involved stakeholders, including community members, should be reciprocal (Hede, 2008). This chapter will discuss this reciprocal relationship between community and events and investigate the potential benefits it can have.