A. A. E. Wibowo

Levels of metals in hair of young children as an indicator of environmental pollution.

In 1982 the levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), vanadium (V), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se) were determined in hair of 231 four- to five-year-old children. The objective was to explore the feasibility of using metal-in-hair levels in groups of children as an indicator of environmental pollution. The study was carried out in four areas, which were assumed to differ in ambient pollution by metals. A questionnaire on personal data, socioeconomic status, intake of beverages, and life-style was completed by the parents. The metal-in-hair levels covered a large range. The variables pertaining to location together with sex, presence of a garden, and drinking of coffee and/or tea explained 32% of the variance of Pb, 24% of the variance of Cd, and 21% of the variance of V. The total variance explained by all measured questionnaire items was at best 38%. The location was the most important factor. Cu and Se levels did not differ between the locations.

Trace element levels in hair of eight-year-old children*

SummaryA study of trace element levels in hair was performed on 183 eight-year-old schoolchildren living in Bijlmermeer, a suburb of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Microlevel-elements, such as Au, Co, Ag, Se and Cd, and macrolevel-elements, such as Pb, Cu, Fe and Zn, were analyzed using the NAA and AAS methods. The total group of children was divided into subgroups, according to ethnic origins: Caucasian boys and girls, Hindustani children and a Surinamese rest group. The relation between element levels in hair and nutritional status, anthropometric and haematological variables were studied. Most levels corresponded reasonably with literature data. The iron in hair may be positively related to daily dietary intake of iron.

Concentrations of lead and other metals in blood of two and three year-old children living near a secondary smelte

SummaryIn 108 two-and three-year-old children the concentration of lead, cadmium, manganese, and zinc in blood, of free erythrocyte porphyrin in erythrocytes, and of haemoglobin and haematocrit were measured. The relation with distance of residence to a secondary smelter and with socio-economic class was studied. The ranges were for PbB 45–383 ppb, CdB 0.2–3.5 ppb, ZnB 2.0–9.7 ppm, MnB 2.7–14.1 ppb, FEP 10.5–138.9 μg/100 ml rbc. PbB was influenced independently by the distance to the source of emission and by the socioeconomic class. FEP increased with PbB; Hb and Ht were not affected. The results suggest that the Biological Quality Guide for blood lead as adopted in the European Community may have to be lowered for young children.

Biological Assessment of Exposure in Factories with Second Degree Usage of Cadmium Compounds

SummaryBiological assessment of occupational exposure to cadmium in five different factories with low-level second degree usage of Cd-compounds has been carried out. In 124 exposed and control male workers the following measurements were performed: cadmium in blood (CdB) and urine (CdU), B2-microglobulin (B2M), creatinin in urine (Great), hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Ht). Analysis of 34 pairs of workers matched according to age, smoking habits, ethnic origin and factory, established a significant difference only in CdU, the geometric means being 0.67 μg/g Creat in the exposed group and 0.48 μg/g Creat in the control group. Significant correlation was found between CdU x age and CdB x smoking habits. Multiple regression analysis showed that for each year increase in age CdU increased 3%, for each percent increase of CdB CdU increased 0.28%; for each cigarette smoked per day CdB increased 1.6%. It is concluded that in this type of work the low external cadmium exposure does not express itself in different CdB-levels, but only in different CdU-levels, indicating an increased body burden due to long term low level occupational cadmium exposure. In biological assessment of exposure to Cd, it is essential to take age and smoking habits fully into account.

A Review of the Kinetics and Kidney Effects of Cadmium — Recent Epidemiological Studies

Some aspects of cadmium are reviewed in order to get insight in some important aspects of cadmium toxicology for man. These aspects are the toxico-kinetics and effects of cadmium on the kidney. In the first part of the review the relationship between these topics, including intake, up-take, body burden and critical levels is considered. The second part of the review discusses recent epidemiological general population and occupational health studies.

The Feasibility of Using Lead in Hair Concentration in Monitoring Environmental Exposure in Children

SummaryThe feasibility of lead in hair as an indicator of lead exposure has been compared to that of lead in blood and zinc protoporphyrin in blood levels in 1–3-year-old children living within 1 km of a lead smelter. Lead exposure was measured as lead in house dust, outdoor and indoor lead in air concentrations, outdoor and indoor lead depositions, and subjective assessment of indoor dustiness. Lead in blood ranged from 51–353 μg/l and lead in hair from 0.8–114 μg/g. It can be concluded that within the range of environmental exposure studied, and for the age group concerned, measurement of lead in blood and of the zinc protoporphyrin in blood levels appear to be better biological parameters to assess both total environmental exposure and health risk than measurement of lead in hair level alone.

Blood lead and serum iron levels in non-occupationally exposed males and females.

SummaryA study has been performed in 148 non occupationally exposed subjects (19–21 yrs) divided into three groups: males, females without and females using oral contraceptives. PbB-levels ranged from 46 to 238 ppb. Freeerythrocyte-porphyrins (FEP), serum iron (Fe-S), Hb, Ht, total iron-bindingcapacity and unsaturated-iron-binding-capacity were measured. A negative correlation was found between PbB and Fe-S in males only. In females FEP was higher than in males at same PbB-levels. Females using oral contraceptives had higher Fe-S-levels and total-iron-binding-capacity than females not taking these; no difference was found between individual preparations. Two hypotheses are suggested to explain the negative relationship between lead in blood and serum iron in males. In a study of 51 other male subjects, 19-21 yrs, again a negative trend for Fe-S with increasing PbB was observed; the pooled data showed a negative relation; there was no difference in morning and afternoon Fe-S levels.

An effect of erythrocyte protoporphyrin on blood manganese in lead-exposed children and adults.

SummaryIn one study in 2- and 3-year-old children (geom. average 143 μg Pb/1) and in two studies in workers (geom. average 483 pg Pb/1 and 323 μg Pb/1) manganese in blood levels increased with blood lead and with free erythrocyte porphyrin (FEP). The zero-order correlation between PbB and MnB disappeared when FEP was kept constant. The conclusion is drawn that the increase of MnB with increasing PbB is probably not due to simultaneous exposure, neither to direct interaction between Pb and Mn, but mediated through a relationship between Mn and porphyrin in erythrocytes.

Zinc protoporphyrin as an indicator of lead exposure: precision of zinc protoporphyrin measurements

SummaryIn lead-exposed workers many factors affect the relationship between the levels of lead and of zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) in blood. When the zinc protoporphyrin level is used to assess the lead in the blood level, the analytical accuracy of the ZPP and the PbB determinations should be known. Also the variability of lead exposure over time is an important parameter of this assessment. The absolute and relative precision of ZPP measurements with two brands of ZPP meters (AVIV and ESA) were compared. The absolute precision of the ZPP measurements is not constant for the AVIV meter, but is constant for the ESA meter. The relative precision for both brands of meters decreases with increasing ZPP levels. Between the AVIV and the ESA meters, a significant difference in response, irrespective of the kind of anticoagulant used, was observed. The regression equations between PbB and ZPP levels were studied. Different factors can affect the relationship between PbB and ZPP, e.g. variability in lead exposure, the time-lag between the increase of PbB and ZPP, and the precision and accuracy of PbB and ZPP measurements.

Short-term occupational exposure limits: a simplified approach

SummaryThis paper presents a simplified proposal for setting health standards based on short-term exposure limits (STEL). It presents an alternative to the approach by the German MAC Commission: with only three instead of five categories, no fixed excursion factors, but ranges; more restrictive duration of sampling; no fixed frequencies of the number of accepted excursions per workshift.