A. Fimia

Acrylamide-N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide silica glass holographic recording material

In this paper, we describe a photopolymerizable silica glass based on acrylamide (AA) and N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (BMA) as monomers, triethanolamine (TEA) as coinitiator and yellowish eosin (YE) as photoinitiator. We studied different compositions, analyzing the diffraction efficiency, energetic exposure and effective thickness obtained in the holographic gratings. A diffraction efficiency of 60 % with an energetic exposure of 139 mJ/cm(2) and an effective thickness of 1.1 mm were obtained. Also, by varying the photopolymerizable composition of the material diffraction efficiencies higher than 80 % can be reached with an energetic exposure of 10 mJ/cm(2) and an effective thickness of 113 microm. These values are similar to those obtained in conventional photopolymer systems in polyvinylalcohol and better than the values reached in other sol-gel compositions. Also, 9 holograms were angular multiplexed with diffraction efficiencies between 6 and 12 % and total exposure time shorter than 150 ms, with a dynamic range M/#= 2.4.

Study of angular responses of mixed amplitude–phase holographic gratings: shifted Borrmann effect

We present theoretical results for angular responses of transmitted and diffracted beams in mixed amplitude-phase holographic gratings. Experimental results for gratings recorded in photographic emulsions and developed without a bleaching bath, with diffraction efficiencies of >20% , are also presented. The model shows an angular shift between minimum transmittance and maximum diffraction efficiency when both index modulation and absorption coefficient modulation are present. Also, the Borrmann effect was found outside the Bragg angle. This method can be extended to a study of the mechanism of image formation in materials such as bacteriorhodopsin and azo-dye-doped polymers that exhibit both types of modulations (index and absorption).

Multiple band holographic reflection gratings recorded in new ultra-fine grain emulsion BBVPan

We present the results obtained using the new panchromatic ultra-fine grain emulsion BBVPan, manufactured by Colourholographics Ltd., to produce multiple band holographic reflection gratings, multiplexed on a single layer of material. Three different laser systems were used: He-Cd, frequency-doubled Nd-YAG and He-Ne. High diffraction efficiencies, of over 52%, were obtained for each of the three bands, with little wavelength shifting. The holographic response of the multiplexed hologram was compared with the theoretical response to demonstrate that there is negligible contribution of the crosstalk between recordings in the visible range of the spectrum for this specific configuration.

Matrix method for the study of wave propagation in one-dimensional general media

A matrix method which relates the field and its derivative is presented for the study of wave propagation in any type of one-dimensional media. The transfer matrix is obtained from the canonical solutions of Helmholtz equations at normal incidence. The method is applied to different optical systems like a Fabry-Perot cavity formed by uniform fiber Bragg gratings, periodic dielectric structures and different quasi-periodic structures based on Fibonacci and Thue-Morse sequences of layers with constant and variable refractive index.

A theoretical model for noise gratings recorded in acrylamide photopolymer materials used in real-time holography

Abstract Among the different sources of noise in holography, noise gratings have been analysed extensively in photographic emulsions owing to the granular nature of these recording materials; however, information about photopolymers is quite scarce. The effect of age on transmittance curves in a photopolymer system, used as holographic recording material, shows the appearance of noise gratings. We present a theoretical model, which explains the results for transmittance as a function of time in the presence of noise gratings recorded in an acrylamide mixture photopolymer. Good agreement between theory and experience has been observed, and the model can be used to obtain an approximate value for the diffraction efficiency of noise gratings, as well as to explain the results of age in transmittance curves.

Two dyes for holographic recording material: Panchromatic ion pair from Rose Bengal and methylene blue

Abstract An ion pair (RBMB) isolated from Rose Bengal and Methylene Blue has been used as the photoinitiator in formulations of photopolymers tested as holographic recording materials in the form of dry films. Under irradiation with light of wavelength 633 or 514 nm, diffraction efficiencies of 65 and 35%, and sensitivities of 30 and 100mJcm−2 have been respectively reached, with a spatial resolution of ca. 1000 lines mm−1. These holographic responses are better than those reached under comparative conditions using a 1:1 physical mixture of the individual dyes. The influence of the light intensity on the photoinitiation of the polymerization process yielding the hologram has also been studied.

A two-step method for recording holographic optical elements with partially coherent light

The authors propose a two-step method which enables them to obtain transmission holographic optical elements of high diffraction efficiency as well as a good signal-to-noise relation. By means of a device using partially coherent light, a master holographic optical element can be copied in a second photosensitive material. The results which are obtained in dichromated gelatin and photoresist are comparable to those which are obtained directly.

Theoretical model of holographic grating formation in photopolymerizable dry films in slanted geometry

We present a model describing real-time evolution of diffraction efficiency for a slanted grating recorded in holographic photopolymers when the reading is performed with the same wavelength as the recording. This model combines initiation kinetics of polymerization and the coupled-wave theory, explaining the effects of thickness, intensity and the final modulation index. The model is validated by the fit of experimental curves of temporal diffraction efficiencies recorded at different geometries.

Optimal composition of an acrylamide and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide holographic recording material

Abstract We study the effect of the addition of a cross-linking agent (N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide) to a photopolymerizable matrix for real-time holography. Optimization of the concentration of this component has been achieved, paying attention to holographic parameters such as energy sensitivity and diffraction efficiency. Diffraction efficiencies of around 88% have been obtained with energy exposures of 12 mJ cm−2. At the same time considering a nonlinear response of the material we have carried out a theoretical study of the experimental results. We observed a nonlinear response of the material with regard to the storage intensity. This is a very interesting point in reflection holographic optical elements.

An explanation for the non-uniform grating effects during recording of diffraction gratings in photopolymers

The recent results reported in reference 1 have produced an increased interest in explaining deviations from the ideal behavior of the energetic variation of the diffraction efficiency of holographic gratings. This ideal behavior occurs when uniform gratings are recorded, and the index modulation is proportional to the energetic exposure. As a result, a typical sin(2) curve is obtained reaching a maximum diffraction efficiency and saturation at or below this value. However, linear deviations are experimentally observed when the first maximum on the curve is lower than the second. This effect does not correspond to overmodulation and recently in PVA/acrylamide photopolymers of high thickness it has been explained by the dye concentration in the layer and the resulting molecular weight of the polymer chains generated in the polymerization process. In this work, new insights into these deviations are gained from the analysis of the non-uniform gratings recorded. Therefore, we show that deviations from the linear response can be explained by taking into account the energetic evolution of the index modulation as well as the fringe bending in the grating.