A. G. Rud

Confucianism’s Ascent to State Orthodoxy: The Philosophy of Moral Education in the Western Han Dynasty

This chapter explores the contexts, reasons, and the process of the rise of Confucianism to state ideology. It first introduces background information related to the renaissance of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty and then discusses Jia Yi’s philosophy, for example his cosmological concept of heaven’s role in promoting the moral development of people, and his idea of using moral education as the foundation of good politics. The following section examines Dong Zhongshu’s contributions to the philosophy of moral education, which include his proposition of making Confucianism the sole ideology, the doctrine of the three grades of human nature, his portent theory about interactions between heaven and man, and his framework of the “Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues” as the goal and content of moral education.

From Practical Learning to Chinese Substance and Western Utility: The Philosophy of Moral Education in an Era of Crises

This chapter examines the crises of the philosophy of moral education in the Qing Dynasty. The first half concentrates on the moral education concepts of three philosophers of enlightenment, Huang Zongxi, Wang Fuzhi, and Gu Yanwu, who agonized over the fall of the Ming Dynasty, criticized the empty talk of Neo-Confucianism and advocated practical learning. The second half discusses how the philosophers responded to Western challenges in the late Qing Dynasty. It covers the advocacy by the Self-Strengthening Movement of using Confucianism as the Substance and Western science and technology as Utility—Chinese Substance and Western Utility—and discusses the reformists’ advocacy of interpenetrating Chinese learning and Western learning.

The Heart of Tao Is Subtle: The Emergence of the Philosophy of Chinese Moral Education

This chapter discusses the background information and the origins of the philosophy of Chinese moral education at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, as embodied in the earliest books in China.

Farewell to Migrating Geese: The Philosophy of Moral Education in a Time of Rebellion

This chapter discusses concepts of moral education in the Study of Xuan or the Neo-Taoism that challenged and enriched Confucianism. It starts by analyzing Wang Chong’s cosmology based on qi and his dismissal of heaven’s role in moral education. After that, it covers the different attitudes toward Mingjiao (the teaching of Confucian rites) and nature of three representatives of the Study of Xuan. These include Wang Bi’s proposal of using nature to reinterpret Mingjiao, Ji Kang’s advocacy of transcending Mingjiao and pursuing a natural life and spiritual freedom, and Guo Xiang’s ideas about the independent evolution of human nature and the integration of Mingjiao and nature. The chapter concludes by discussing the characteristics of the Wei-Jin Style.

Promoting Morality for Ultimate Liberation: The Philosophy of Moral Education in Religious Taoism and Buddhism

This chapter describes a period of conflict and the integration of the three teachings/religions.

The Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought: The Philosophy of Moral Education in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods

This chapter deals with the philosophies of Taoism, Legalism, and the Mohist School during the era of the “Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought”. It first discusses Lao Tzu’s metaphysical concepts of Tao, wordless teaching, and the idea of following nature. Then it elaborates on Chaung Tzu’s renouncing of “wisdom” and knowledge, and his idea of following natural laws to preserve spiritual serenity and health. Next it covers philosophy in Legalism, including Guan Zhong’s advocacy of using the human tendency to pursue gain in order to promote moral education, and Han Feizi’s belief in replacing moral education with legal education. Last, the chapter centers on Mo Tzu’s propositions for nurturing “universal love” and “austerity”. The chapter also interprets the moral education concepts of all these philosophical schools by using comparisons.

My Heart Is the Universe: The Philosophy of Moral Education in the School of Mind of Neo-Confucianism

This chapter deals with the School of Mind of Neo-Confucianism. It first discusses Lu Jiuyuan’s belief in the heart instead of the heavenly principle as the substance of the universe and his sudden enlightenment approach to moral education, and then introduces the Goose Lake Meeting, which showcased the distinctions between Chu Hsi and Lu Jiuyuan regarding the approaches of “honoring moral nature” versus “following the great path of investigation and study”. The second section covers Wang Yangming’s contribution to the School of Mind and thinking about moral education, including his propositions of the heart as the origin of the heavenly principle, the extension of innate knowledge, the unity of knowing and acting, and his famous instruction of four sentences.

High Mountains of Admiration: The Philosophy of Moral Education of the Confucian Big Three

This chapter covers the philosophies of moral education of Confucius, Mencius, and Hsun Tzu. It starts with Confucius’ ideas of rule by morality, which highlight the integration of politics and moral cultivation, then comes to the spiritual core of benevolence and the doctrine of the mean, and the concept cluster made up of faithfulness, credibility, reciprocity, filial piety, and righteousness, as well as their implications for moral education. Next it focuses on Mencius and Hsun Tzu by contrasting their philosophies, for example, Mencius’ proposition of “good nature” versus Tzu’s “evil nature” argument, Mencius’ themes of benevolence and righteousness versus Hsun Tzu’s solemnizing rites and valuing laws, and Mencius’ roles of the heart and qi in cultivating morality versus Hsun Tzu’s use of rites to eliminate evil intentions and shape good habits.

When East Met West: The Philosophy of Moral Education at a Historical Turning Point

This chapter covers the early twentieth century, when the Chinese criticized traditional moral education and used Western philosophies to replace Confucian doctrines or refresh traditional Chinese philosophy. It first discusses Chen Duxiu’s criticism of the Confucian teaching of rites and his introduction of Western ideologies in reconstructing the Chinese national character and solving social crises; it then examines Liang Shuming’s advocacy of renewing classic Confucian doctrines and using these as an attitude to life supervising modern knowledge and social system, as well as his perspective about world cultures; next it explores Cai Yuanpei’s integration of Kant’s concepts of the phenomenal world and the noumenal world with Chinese traditional philosophy, creating the theory of “the Unity of Five Types of Education”; last, it scrutinizes Tao Xingzi’s effort to transform Dewey’s philosophical frameworks into the life education theory to fit with Chinese national conditions.

Flying Dragons in the Sky: The Philosophy of Moral Education in the School of Principle of Neo-Confucianism

This chapter concentrates on the philosophy of moral education in the School of the Principle of Neo-Confucianism during the Song Dynasty. The moral education concepts and approaches of five Confucian philosophers are discussed in detail. The chapter explores and analyzes Zhou Dunyi’s cosmology of the Supreme Ultimate, Zhang Zai’s cosmic concepts of qi and the role of the heart in governing nature and the sentiments, the Cheng Brothers’ ontological framework of the heavenly principle and their contribution to compiling moral education textbooks, Chu Hsi’s proposal of preserving the transcendental li and eradicating human desires, and his moral education approach to investigating concrete objects and events to attain moral truth.