A. Hartog

Molecular Identification of the Apical Ca2+Channel in 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-responsive Epithelia

In mammals, the extracellular calcium concentration is maintained within a narrow range despite large variations in daily dietary input and body demand. The small intestine and kidney constitute the influx pathways into the extracellular Ca2+ pool and, therefore, play a primary role in Ca2+ homeostasis. We identified an apical Ca2+influx channel, which is expressed in proximal small intestine, the distal part of the nephron and placenta. This novel epithelial Ca2+ channel (ECaC) of 730 amino acids contains six putative membrane-spanning domains with an additional hydrophobic stretch predicted to be the pore region. ECaC resembles the recently cloned capsaicin receptor and the transient receptor potential-related ion channels with respect to its predicted topology but shares less than 30% sequence homology with these channels. In kidney, ECaC is abundantly present in the apical membrane of Ca2+transporting cells and colocalizes with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-dependent calbindin-D28K. ECaC expression in Xenopus oocytes confers Ca2+influx with properties identical to those observed in distal renal cells. Thus, ECaC has the expected properties for being the gatekeeper of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-dependent active transepithelial Ca2+ transport.

Expression and immunolocalization of multidrug resistance protein 2 in rabbit small intestine

Multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) is an ATP-dependent transporter of anionic drugs and conjugates. It functions as an efflux pump in the apical membranes of liver and kidney cells, but its membrane localization in small intestine has not yet been defined. The present study demonstrates exclusive localization of Mrp2 to the brush-border (apical) membrane of villi, decreasing in intensity from the villus tip to the crypts. In immunoblot analysis of crude membranes of various rabbit tissues, Mrp2 was only found in small intestine, kidney and liver. These results are in-line with the supposed function of Mrp2 in drug excretion.

Calbindin-D28K facilitates cytosolic calcium diffusion without interfering with calcium signaling

The role of calbindin-D28K, in transcellular Ca2+ transport and Ca2+ signaling in rabbit cortical collecting system was investigated. Rabbit kidney connecting tubules and cortical collecting ducts, hereafter referred to as cortical collecting system, were isolated by immunodissection and cultured to confluence on permeable filters and glass coverslips. Calbindin-D28K was present in the cytosol of principal cells, but was absent from the intercalated cells. 1,25(OH)2D3 (48 h, 10(-7) M) significantly increased cellular calbindin-D28K levels (194 +/- 15%) and stimulated transcellular Ca2+ transport (41 +/- 3%). This stimulatory effect could be fully mimicked by the endogenous Ca2+ chelator, BAPTA (30 microM BAPTA/AM), which suggests that the presence of Ca2+ chelators alone is sufficient to enhance transcellular Ca2+ transport. Stimulation of Ca2+ transport was not accompanied by a rise in [Ca2+]i. Isosmotic replacement of extracellular Na+ ([Na+]o) for N-methylglucamine (NMG) generated oscillations in [Ca2+]i in individual cells of the monolayer. The functional parameters of these oscillations such as frequency of spiking, resting [Ca2+]i, increase in [Ca2+]i and percentage of responding cells, were not affected by the level of calbindin-D28K. In contrast, loading the cells with BAPTA abruptly stopped these [Ca2+]i oscillations. This suggests that the kinetics of Ca2+ binding by calbindin-D28K are slow relative to the initiation of the [Ca2+]i rise, so that calbindin-D28K, unlike BAPTA, is unable to reduce [Ca2+]i rapidly enough to prevent the initiation of Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release.

Role of Na+/Ca2+ exchange in transcellular Ca2+ transport across primary cultures of rabbit kidney collecting system

Cells from connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct of rabbit kidney were isolated by immunodissection with mAb R2G9 and cultured on permeable filters. Confluent monolayers developed an amiloride-sensitive transepithelial potential difference of −50±1 mV (lumen negative) and a transepithelial resistance of 507±18 Ω cm2. Transepithelial Ca2+ transport increased dose-dependently with apical [Ca2+] and, in solutions containing 1 mM Ca2+, the active transcellular Ca2+ transport rate was 92±2 nmol h−1 cm−2. Transcellular Ca2+ transport was dependent on basolateral Na+ (Nab+). Isoosmotic substitution of Nab+for N-methylglucamine resulted in a concentration-dependent decrease in Ca2+ absorption, with maximal inhibition of 67±5%. A Hill plot of the Na+-dependence yielded a coefficient of 1.9±0.4, indicating more than one Na+ site on a Na+-dependent Ca2+ transport system. In addition, the absence of Cab2+resulted in a significant increase in Ca2+ transport both in the presence and absence of Nab+. Added basolaterally, ouabain (0.1 mM) inhibited Ca2+ transport to the same extent as did Na+-free solutions, while bepridil (0.1 mM), an inhibitor of Na+/Ca2+ exchange, reduced Ca2+ transport by 32±6%. Methoxyverapamil, felodipine, flunarizine and diltiazem (10 μM) were without effect. Depolarisation of the basolateral membrane, by raising [K+]b to 60 mM, significantly decreased transcellular Ca2+ transport, which is indicative of electrogenic Na+/Ca2+ exchange. In conclusion, active Ca2+ transport in the collecting system of rabbit kidney is largely driven by basolateral Na+/Ca2+ exchange. However, a residual Ca2+ absorption of about 30% was always observed, suggesting that other Ca2+ transport mechanisms, presumably a Ca2+-ATPase, participate as well.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is intracellularly located as a tetramer

Abstract. The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) plays an important role in Na+ homeostasis by determining the Na+ transport rate in so-called end-organs such as the renal collecting duct, distal colon, salivary and sweat gland ducts. ENaC is formed by heteromultimerization of three homologous subunits, termed α, β, and γ ENaC. The number of subunits and stoichiometry remain a matter of debate. In this study, sucrose gradient analysis of Xenopuslaevis oocytes expressing rENaC revealed that ENaC forms heterotetramers, when the membrane fraction was solubilized in 0.1% (wt/vol) Na-deoxycholate. However, solubilization of the membrane proteins in higher concentrations of detergents dissociated the ENaC subunits of the tetramers in dimers. Co-immunoprecipitation studies with FLAG-tagged ENaC subunits suggest that during dissociation of ENaC tetramers the composition of dimers is completely random. Glycosidase digestion studies show that the ENaC subunits are retarded in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and pre-Golgi, whereas only a small fraction is inserted into the plasma membrane. Immunocytochemical analysis confirmed that ENaC is primarily located intracellularly. In addition, these findings are not restricted to the oocyte expression system, since identical results were found in rabbit connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct cells in primary culture and in rabbit colon.

Time-dependent regulation by aldosterone of the amiloride-sensitive Na+ channel in rabbit kidney.

Abstract The epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) functions as the rate-limiting factor in aldosterone-regulated transcellular Na+ transport. In the study described here, the effect of aldosterone on ENaC mRNA levels, protein synthesis and benzamil-sensitive Na+ transport was investigated using primary cultures of immunodissected rabbit kidney connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct cells (CNT and CCD, respectively). After a lag time of 3 h, aldosterone caused transepithelial Na+ transport to increase, reaching maximal level of 260±44% after 16 h of incubation. The α, β and γ rabbit ENaC (rbENaC) mRNA levels, measured by semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, were not changed by aldosterone during the first 3 h, but a twofold increase was apparent after 6 h; levels remained elevated for up to 16 h of incubation. Immunoprecipitation of [35S]methionine-labeled rbENaC revealed a rise in protein levels of the α and β subunits, but the protein level of the γ subunit remained constant. In conclusion, our data suggest that in rabbit CNT and CCD the early increase in Na+ transport caused by aldosterone is due to the activation or insertion of existing Na+ channels into the apical membrane, and that the late response is mediated by increased synthesis of the α and β rbENaC subunits.

Na/P(i) cotransporter ( Npt2) gene disruption increases duodenal calcium absorption and expression of epithelial calcium channels 1 and 2.

Abstract. Mice homozygous for the disrupted type-II Na/Pi cotransporter gene (Npt2–/–) exhibit hypophosphataemia, increased serum concentration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-(OH)2D) and calcium (Ca) and elevated urinary Ca excretion. To determine whether the hypercalcaemia and hypercalciuria are secondary to 1,25-(OH)2D-stimulated intestinal Ca absorption, we examined the effect of Npt2 gene disruption on serum Ca and urinary Ca excretion after an overnight fast, and on duodenal Ca absorption. We also compared the duodenal expression of the epithelial Ca channels, ECaC1 and ECaC2, and calbindinD9K mRNAs, relative to that of β-actin mRNA, in Npt2+/+ and Npt2–/– mice. Both serum Ca and urine Ca/creatinine were significantly decreased in Npt2–/– mice after an overnight fast and were no longer different from that in wild-type mice. Absorption of 45Ca from isolated duodenal segments in vivo and 45Ca appearing in the plasma were significantly increased in Npt2–/– compared with Npt2+/+ mice. In addition, the duodenal abundance of ECaC1, ECaC2 and calbindinD9K mRNAs was significantly elevated in mutant mice relative to that in wild-type mice. In contrast, both duodenal Ca absorption and ECaC1 and ECaC2 mRNA abundance were lower in mice with X-linked hypophosphataemia (Hyp) than in normal littermates. In summary, we provide evidence for increased duodenal Ca absorption in Npt2–/– mice and suggest a role for ECaC1, ECaC2 and calbindinD9K in mediating this response.

Anoxia-induced increases in intracellular calcium concentration in primary cultures of rabbit thick ascending limb of Henle's loop

The effect of anoxia on intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in primary cultures of medullary (mTAL) and cortical (cTAL) thick ascending limb of Henles loop was investigated. Previously, we reported a method to monitor [Ca2+]i continuously in cultured proximal tubule cells during 1 h of anoxic incubation in the absence of glycolytic substrates [1]. Complete absence of O2 was realised by inclusion of a mixture of oxygenases in an anoxic chamber. As a result of substrate-free anoxia, [Ca2+]i started to rise in individual cells of mTAL and cTAL monolayers and reached maximal levels within 60 min after starting the anoxic incubation. Anoxia induced significant increases in [Ca2+]i from 76 +/- 1 (n = 176) to 469 +/- 18 nM (n = 203) in mTAL monolayers and from 58 +/- 1 (n = 91) to 442 +/- 27 nM (n = 106) in cTAL monolayers (P < 0.05). At the re-introduction of oxygen and glucose, elevated [Ca2+]i rapidly declined to 110 +/- 4 (n = 167) and 105 +/- 5 nM (n = 87) in mTAL and cTAL, respectively (P < 0.05). Removal of extracellular Ca2+ and addition of 0.1 mM La3+ partially prevented anoxia-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in both cell types. The L-type Ca2+ channel blocker D600 (1 microM) was as effective as Ca2+ removal and La3+ addition. Comparing mTAL and cTAL cells, only one difference was consistently observed. Prevention of Ca2+ influx by exposure to La3+ combined with Ca2+ removal or addition of 1 microM D600 had a greater inhibitory effect on anoxic [Ca2+]i values in mTAL than in cTAL monolayers, indicative of a larger role of Ca2+ influx through L-type Ca2+ channels in anoxia-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in the former cell type. In conclusion, substrate-free anoxia reversibly increases [Ca2+]i in primary cultures of cTAL and mTAL, which results from Ca2+ release from stores as well as from Ca2+ influx via D600-sensitive Ca2+ channels.

Mechanisms and Sites of Transepithelial Ca2+ Transport in Kidney Cells

In epithelial cells, possible mechanisms involved in active transcellular Ca2+ transport are: a passive entry step at the apical membrane, diffusion through the cytoplasm, and active extrusion mechanisms located in the basolateral membrane (van Os, 1987). The latter mechanisms, i.e. Ca2+-ATPase and Na+/Ca2+ exchange, have been studied extensively in basolateral membranes from the kidney.