A. J. Finch

The Children's Depression Inventory: A Systematic Evaluation of Psychometric Properties.

Community Mental Health Center, Yorkville, New YorkThis article presents data from a series of studies designed to determine thepsychometric properties of the Childrens Depression Inventory (GDI). A total of294 school children and 269 children who were psychiatric inpatients served assubjects. Reliability studies were conducted with both normal and clinicalpopulations. Good internal consistency was documented, but test-retest data werevariable across populations and test-retest intervals. Validity studies indicate thatthe GDI can distinguish children with general emotional distress from normalschool children. However, differences between GDI scores of depressed (bysymptom checklists from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of MentalDisorders, DSM-1II; American Psychiatric Association, 1980) and nondepressedchildren were not significantly different. There was a good correspondencebetween the GDI and self-report measures of self-concept. Our data suggestedthat the GDI measures a multidimensional construct that overlaps with otherchildhood disorders, particularly anxiety. Findings are reviewed and discussedrelative to data presented by Kovacs, Kazdin, and others. Although the GDI maystill be the best researched instrument available to measure depression from thechilds viewpoint, more work is needed before it can be interpreted withconfidence in clinical and research settings.

Children Exposed to Disaster: I. Epidemiology of Post-Traumatic Symptoms and Symptom Profiles

OBJECTIVE To determine the range and severity of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms exhibited by children after exposure to a natural disaster. METHOD Three months after Hurricane Hugo struck Berkeley County, South Carolina, 5,687 school-aged children were surveyed about their experiences and reactions related to the storm. Self-reports of PTSD symptoms were obtained by use of a PTSD Reaction Index. RESULTS Significant variation in the prevalence of PTSD symptoms was found across race, gender, and age groups. Self-reported symptoms were used to derive a post-traumatic stress syndrome classification according to DSM-III-R guidelines for the diagnosis of PTSD. More than 5% of the sample reported sufficient symptoms to be classified as exhibiting this post-traumatic stress syndrome. Females and younger children were more likely to receive this classification. At the symptom level, females reported more symptoms associated with emotional processing and emotional reaction to the trauma. Males were more likely to report symptoms related to cognitive and behavioral factors. Younger children were more likely to report symptoms overall. CONCLUSIONS Children exposed to a high magnitude natural disaster report sufficient symptoms to establish a DSM-III-R derived classification of a PTSD syndrome. Differences between gender, age, and race groups appear to be related to differential risk of exposure, reporting biases, as well as a differential risk for developing post-traumatic symptoms.

Children's reactions to a natural disaster: symptom severity and degree of exposure

Abstract Self-report data for 5,687 children ranging in age from 9 to 19 years were collected approximately three months after Hurricane Hugo devastated the rural community where the children lived. Information about the childrens perceptions of hurricane severity, degree of home damage suffered as a result of the hurricane, and hurricane-related parental job loss was used to categorize children into four levels of hurricane exposure. Reports of anxiety were obtained via the Revised Childrens Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) and reports of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms were obtained via the Reaction Index (RI). Significantly higher anxiety scores and significantly more PTSD symptomatology was found for children experiencing more or more severe exposure to the hurricane. Girls reported more anxiety and PTSD symptoms than boys, and black children were more likely than the white children to report PTSD symptomatology. Additionally, girls were more severely affected by increasing levels of hurricane exposure as indicated by their RI scores. These results indicate that, similar to adult and child victims of crime and adult victims of disaster, the development of PTSD symptoms in children exposed to a natural disaster is a function of the degree of exposure to the traumatic event. The results also suggest that childrens trait negative affectivity may moderate the effects of exposure on the development of PTSD symptoms.

Anxiety and Depression in Children and Adolescents: Negative Affectivity and the Utility of Self-Reports.

Self-reported depression and anxiety were examined in 233 inpatient children diagnosed with either an anxiety disorder or a depressive disorder. Depressed children reported more problems related to a loss of interest and low motivation, and they had a more negative view of themselves. Anxious children reported more worry about the future, their well-being, and the reactions of others. The groups did not differ in the degree of depressed affect reported in terms of being sad, lethargic, bothered by things, or feeling alone and isolated. These findings suggest that a general negative affectivity component is common to both anxiety and depression disorders and measures. The results demonstrate that anxiety and depression in children have distinguishing features that can be measured by common self-report instruments, and the findings indicate that 1 factor that may distinguish between anxiety and depression in children is positive affectivity.

Developmental Differences in the Factor Structure of the Children's Depression Inventory

The factorstructure of theChildrens Depression Inventory (GDI), the most widely used self-report measure of depression for children, has been studied, but we still know relatively little about how developmental differences relate to CD1 structure. Here, we evaluated whether the GDI factor structure differed in large samples of clinic-referred children versus adolescents. Our results indicated real but modest differences. Both groups produced 5 first-order factors, but the composition of the factors differed somewhat for children versus adolescents. Both groups also produced a 2nd-order, general depression factor, although items loading on the factor differed somewhat for the 2 groups: For children but not adolescents, several externalizing behavior items (e.g., / never do what I am told} loaded on the general factor: in contrast, for adolescents but not children, several vegetative items (e.g.. / am tired all the time} loaded on the general factor. Overall, the child-factor pattern appeared to involve fewer CD1 items than did the adolescent pattern.

Media Exposure to September 11 Elementary School Students' Experiences and Posttraumatic Symptoms

This study examined symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in children indirectly exposed to September 11 via television, the Internet, and printed media. Approximately 1 month after the attacks, 179 students in Grades K-5 at four Southeastern elementary schools and their parents were surveyed about their experiences and reactions. The Pediatric Emotional Distress Scale (PEDS), the Parent Report of Post-Traumatic Symptoms (PROPS), and the Childrens Report of Post-Traumatic Symptoms (CROPS) were used to assess for PTSD symptoms. More PTSD symptoms were reported in children who saw reports on the Internet (vs. television/printed media), saw images of death or injury, or feared that a loved one might have died in the attacks. There was no measurable benefit to seeing heroic or “positive” images. Older children and boys had greater media exposure and more trauma-specific PTSD symptoms. Implications for those striving to deliver appropriate amounts and types of information to children and families following disasters are discussed.

Children's Depression Inventory: Normative Data and Utility with Emotionally Disturbed Children

Abstract This study presents data on the administration of the Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI) to a psychiatrically hospitalized sample of children ranging from 6 to 17 years of age ( N = 535). The relationships between age, gender, and self-reported levels of depression are reported for the entire sample as well as for extremely depressed and nondepressed hospitalized children. The various properties of the CDI itself are examined in terms of the frequency of individually endorsed items. Interitem and interscale correlations as well as reliability data of the CDI are also computed. Overall it appears that the CDI is a useful instrument to tap into depression from a self-perceived level although much more research needs to be done to determine the validity of the scale before it can be used with any degree of confidence with emotionally disturbed populations.

Children's Coping Styles and Report of Depressive Symptoms Following a Natural Disaster

The present study examined the relationship between childrens coping styles (Spirito, Stark, & Williams, 1988) and self-reported levels of depressive symptoms (Kovacs, 1983) following a major stressor. 257 third- to fifth-grade children consented to participate in the study, 5 months following a hurricane. The number of coping strategies employed was positively related to depression scores, whereas coping efficacy was negatively related to depression scores. Social withdrawal, self-blaming, and emotional regulation were associated with more severe depressive symptoms. Lower levels of symptomatology were found among children who sought social support and engaged in cognitive restructuring. The overall symptom level in the sample did not exceed that of normative samples. Results are discussed in terms of competing theories of childhood depression.

Human figure drawings: Validity in assessing intellectual level and academic achievement

In a sample of 216 child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients, significant but low correlations were found between Goodenough-Harris (GH) drawing scores and both Full Scale IQs and academic achievement. The percentage of subjects correctly classified in appropriate IQ categories ranged from 35 to 44%; the percentage of misclassified subjects ranged from 56 to 65%. Consideration of visual-motor integration, using the Bender-Gestalt, did not improve the accuracy of G-H scores in predicting IQ scores in this sample. These results indicate that human figure drawings should not be substituted for other well-established intelligence and achievement tests nor used as an additional measure of these constructs when one is evaluating psychiatric patients.

Children's Depression Inventory: Investigation of Procedures and Correlates

The Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI) is a widely cited self-report measure of depressive symptoms in children. Normative and psychometric data on the CDI have been collected using two types of forms (number/unnumbered) and two types of administration (Group/Individual). Fifty-seven boys and 54 girls in second through seventh grades were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 − 2 (Form − Administration) design. In addition, all students completed the Peer Nomination Inventory of Depression (PNID). Results indicated no significant differences between CDI scores of children with numbered versus unnumbered forms and no differences between CDI scores of children taking the inventory individually versus in a group ( p > 0.05). CDI correlations with grade level and the PNID are also discussed.