A.J. Huis in 't Veld

Modeling laser-induced periodic surface structures: Finite-difference time-domain feedback simulations

A model predicting the formation of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSSs) is presented. That is, the finite-difference time domain method is used to study the interaction of electromagnetic fields with rough surfaces. In this approach, the rough surface is modified by “ablation after each laser pulse,” according to the absorbed energy profile, in order to account for inter-pulse feedback mechanisms. LIPSSs with a periodicity significantly smaller than the laser wavelength are found to “grow” either parallel or orthogonal to the laser polarization. The change in orientation and periodicity follow from the model. LIPSSs with a periodicity larger than the wavelength of the laser radiation and complex superimposed LIPSS patterns are also predicted by the model.

Imaging of the Ejection Process of Nanosecond Laser-induced forward Transfer of Gold

Laser-induced forward transfer is a direct-write process suitable for high precision 3D printing of several materials. However, the driving forces related to the ejection mechanism of the donor ma-terial are still under debate. To gain further insights into the ejection dynamics, this article presents results of a series of imaging experiments of the release process of nanosecond LIFT of a 200 nm thick gold donor layer. Images were obtained using a setup which consists of two dual-shutter cam-eras. Both cameras were combined with a 50× long-distance microscope and used to capture coaxial and side-view images of the ejection process. Bright field illumination of the scene was accom-plished by a 6 ns dual-cavity laser source. For laser fluence just above the transfer threshold of 140 mJ/cm2 , the formation of a jet and the subsequent release of a single droplet is observed. The drop-let diameter is estimated to be about 2 μm. For laser fluences above 400 mJ/cm2 the formation and rupture of a blistering bubble is observed, which ultimately leads to an undesirable ejection of mul-tiple droplets

Modeling of Laser Induced Periodic Surface Structures

In surfaces irradiated by short laser pulses, Laser Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS) have been observed on all kind of materials for over forty years. These LIPSS, also referred to as ripples, consist of wavy surfaces with periodicity equal or smaller than the wavelength of the laser radiation. Unfortunately, the physical phenomena explaining ripple initiation, growth and transitions toward other patterns are still not fully understood. Models, explaining ripple initiation and growth, based on the laser parameters, such as the wavelength and the angle of incidence, are frequently discussed in literature. This paper presents the most promising models, their ability and limitations to predict experimental results.

Micro-abrasive wear of semi-crystalline polymers

The abrasive wear of a series of four semi-crystalline polymers was investigated with a micro-scale abrasive wear tester. The wear of four semi-crystalline polymers: PA6.6, PBT, POM and PTFE was measured under specific test conditions. The silicon carbide slurry concentration and the load were varied. The wear coefficients of the polymers were compared with the (mechanical) properties. Scanning Electron Microscopy images showed that high slurry concentrations and low loads lead to three-body wear, while low slurry concentrations and high loads result in predominantly two-body grooving. Depending on the experimental conditions, several relations between wear and polymer properties can be found. Experimental conditions should, therefore, be carefully chosen to avoid different wear regimes while measuring a series of polymers. In order to compare the wear coefficient of polymers and obtain relations between wear and polymer properties one should be aware of the dominant wear mechanism.

Laser surface micro-/nano-structuring by a simple transportable micro-sphere lens array

A micro-sphere array optic was employed for laser surface micro-structuring. This array optic consists of a hexagonally close-packed monolayer of silica micro-spheres. It was organized through a self-assembly process and held together on a glass support, without using any adhesives. The array assembly was then reversed, placed in direct contact with the substrate and exposed to 515 nm, 6.7 ps laser pulses. During the exposure, the silica spheres act as micro-lenses, which enhance the near-field light intensity underneath them. As the spheres are confined in the space between the substrate and glass support, they are not ejected during laser machining. Using this type of direct write laser machining, a large number of identical features (nano-holes) can be produced in parallel simultaneously. The holes drilled are a few hundred nanometres in diameter and the depth depends on the number of laser pulses applied. The impact of laser machining on the micro-spheres was also studied. The micro-spheres were contaminated or partially damaged after micro-structuring. Combination of a moderate laser pulse energy and multiple shots was found to ensure a good surface structuring quality and minimum damage to the spherical particles

Laser-induced periodic surface structures, modeling, experiments, and applications

Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSSs) consist of regular wavy surface structures, or ripples, with amplitudes and periodicity in the sub-micrometer range. A summary of experimentally observed LIPSSs is presented, as well as our model explaining their possible origin. Linearly polarized continuous wave (cw) or pulsed laser light, at normal incidence, can produce LIPSSs with a periodicity close to the laser wavelength, and direction orthogonal to the polarization on the surface of the material. Ripples with a periodicity (much) smaller than the laser wavelength develop when applying laser pulses with ultra-short durations in the femtosecond and picosecond regime. The direction of these ripples is either parallel or orthogonal to the polarization direction. Finally, when applying numerous pulses, structures with periodicity larger than the laser wavelength can form, which are referred to as “grooves”. The physical origin of LIPSSs is still under debate. The strong correlation of the ripple periodicity to the laser wavelength, suggests that their formation can be explained by an electromagnetic approach. Recent results from a numerical electromagnetic model, predicting the spatially modulated absorbed laser energy, are discussed. This model can explain the origin of several characteristics of LIPSSs. Finally, applications of LIPSSs will be discussed.

High-resolution imaging of ejection dynamics in laser-induced forward transfer

Laser-induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) is a 3D direct-write method suitable for precision printing of various materials. As the ejection mechanism of picosecond LIFT has not been visualized in detail, the governing physics are not fully understood yet. Therefore, this article presents an experimental imaging study on the ejection process of gold-based LIFT. The LIFT experiments were performed using a 6.7 picosecond Yb:YAG laser source equipped with a SHG. The beam was focused onto a 200 nm thick gold donor layer. The high magnification images were obtained using bright field illumination by a 6 ns pulsed Nd:YAG laser source and a 50× long-distance microscope objective that was combined with a 200 mm tube lens. For laser fluence levels up to two times the donor-transfer-threshold, the ejection of a single droplet was observed. The typical droplet radius was estimated to be less than 3 μm. A transition of ejection features towards higher fluence, indicates a second fluence-regime in the ejection process. For higher laser fluence, the formation of an elongated gold jet was observed. This jet fragments into multiple relatively small droplets, resulting in a spray of particles on the receiving substrate.

High precision laser forming for microactuation

For assembly of micro-devices, such as photonic devices, the precision alignment of components is often critical for their performance. Laser forming, also known as laser-adjusting, can be used to create an integrated microactuator to align the components with sub-micron precision after bonding. In this paper a so-called three-bridge planar manipulator was used to study the laser-material interaction and thermal and mechanical behavior of the laser forming mechanism. A 3-D Finite Element Method (FEM) model and experiments are used to identify the optimal parameter settings for a high precision actuator. The goal in this paper is to investigate how precise the maximum occurring temperature and the resulting displacement are predicted by a 3-D FEM model by comparing with experimental results. A secondary goal is to investigate the resolution of the mechanism and the range of motion. With the experimental setup we measure the displacement and surface temperature in real-time. The time-dependent heat transfer FEM models match closely with experimental results, however the structural model can deviate more than 100% in absolute displacement. Experimentally, a positioning resolution of 0.1μm was achieved, with a total stroke exceeding 20μm. A spread of 10% in the temperature cycles between several experiments was found, which was attributed to a spread in the surface absorptivity. Combined with geometric tolerances, the spread in displacement can be as large as 20%. This implies that feedback control of the laser power, in combination with iterative learning during positioning, is required for high precision alignment. Even though the FEM models deviate substantially from the experiments, the 3-D FEM model predicts the trend in deformation sufficiently accurate to use it for design optimization of high precision 3-D actuators using laser adjusting.

Microstructural characterization of surface damage through ultra-short laser pulses

Electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) technique, commonly used to study the microstructural characteristics of materials, was employed for the investigation of the surface damage induced through ultra-short laser pulses. Single-crystal silicon surface was irradiated with an Ytterbium-doped YAG (Trumpf-TruMicro 5050) laser source generating laser pulses of 6.7 ps duration, a 1030 nm wavelength and linear polarization. The laser fluence level was set to values lower than the single-pulse modification threshold of the material. The laser pulses were delivered on the surface at conditions of lateral displacement, i.e. a train of laser pulses with a partial overlap (laser track). This approach made it possible to investigate the early stages of modification of the surface. Scanning electron microscope equipped with a field emission gun (Philips XL30 SEM FEG) and EDAX-TSL EBSD system was used for inspection of the surface modifications initiated with pulsed laser radiation. Depth of the generation of back-scattered electrons at different acceleration voltages of the primary beam was estimated by the use of Monte-Carlo simulation. Trajectories of primary and back-scattered electrons in a flat Si surface were generated at an angle of 74o from the surface normal, which is the angle used for the EBSD observations. High sensitivity of EBSD signal allows an estimate of the depth and intensity of the laser induced damage to the crystal lattice. It is found that the thickness of amorphous layer increases gradually with a distance from the feature center. The similarity of surface damage profiles observed at different accelerating voltages of the primary beam indicates that the damage is formed via a gradual crystal damage accumulation in subsurface layer and via the formation and growth of an amorphous layer from the surface.

Surface melting of copper by ultrashort laser pulses

The main advantage of ultrashort laser pulses in manufacturing technology is their very high removal rate of material and high quality of microstructures with the smallest dimensions at 1 μm level. The accuracy is mainly due to almost absence of thermal diffusion into bulk material. In this paper we report the investigation on polycrystalline Cu sample surface treated by 6.7 ps laser pulses with 1030 nm laser light wavelength. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs reveal the presence of jet-like structures with spherical drop-like endings, solidified spheres and many bubble bursts at even lower fluence than the threshold value for the ablation is. Within the molten material the jet-like features are due to an explosion of bubbles originated in solid-liquid-vapor transitions. In the case of below-threshold irradiation the same objects can be seen along surface scratches, dot contaminations etc., which indicate an increase of the laser light absorption on these inhomogeneitiesThe main advantage of ultrashort laser pulses in manufacturing technology is their very high removal rate of material and high quality of microstructures with the smallest dimensions at 1 μm level. The accuracy is mainly due to an almost absence of thermal diffusion into bulk material. In this paper we report the investigation on polycrystalline Cu sample surface treated by 6.7 ps laser pulses with 1030 nm laser light wavelength. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs reveal the presence of jet-like structures with spherical drop-like endings, solidified spheres and many bubble bursts at even lower fluence than the threshold value for the ablation is. Within the molten material the jet-like features are due to an explosion of bubbles originated in solid-liquid-vapor transitions. In the case of below-threshold irradiation, the same objects can be seen along surface scratches, dot contaminations etc., which indicate an increase of the laser light absorption on these inhomogeneities.