A. Lisle

A Global Analysis of Protected Area Management Effectiveness

We compiled details of over 8000 assessments of protected area management effectiveness across the world and developed a method for analyzing results across diverse assessment methodologies and indicators. Data was compiled and analyzed for over 4000 of these sites. Management of these protected areas varied from weak to effective, with about 40% showing major deficiencies. About 14% of the surveyed areas showed significant deficiencies across many management effectiveness indicators and hence lacked basic requirements to operate effectively. Strongest management factors recorded on average related to establishment of protected areas (legal establishment, design, legislation and boundary marking) and to effectiveness of governance; while the weakest aspects of management included community benefit programs, resourcing (funding reliability and adequacy, staff numbers and facility and equipment maintenance) and management effectiveness evaluation. Estimations of management outcomes, including both environmental values conservation and impact on communities, were positive. We conclude that in spite of inadequate funding and management process, there are indications that protected areas are contributing to biodiversity conservation and community well-being.

Low-density koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the mulgalands of south-west Queensland. IV. Abundance and conservation status

Urban encroachment on dense, coastal koala populations has ensured that their management has received increasing government and public attention. The recently developed National Koala Conservation Strategy calls for maintenance of viable populations in the wild. Yet the success of this, and other, conservation initiatives is hampered by lack of reliable and generally accepted national and regional population estimates. In this paper we address this problem in a potentially large, but poorly studied, regional population in the State that is likely to have the largest wild populations. We draw on findings from previous reports in this series and apply the faecal standing-crop method (FSCM) to derive a regional estimate of more than 59 000 individuals. Validation trials in riverine communities showed that estimates of animal density obtained from the FSCM and direct observation were in close agreement. Bootstrapping and Monte Carlo simulations were used to obtain variance estimates for our population estimates in different vegetation associations across the region. The most favoured habitat was riverine vegetation, which covered only 0.9% of the region but supported 45% of the koalas. We also estimated that between 1969 and 1995 ~30% of the native vegetation associations that are considered as potential koala habitat were cleared, leading to a decline of perhaps 10% in koala numbers. Management of this large regional population has significant implications for the national conservation of the species: the continued viability of this population is critically dependent on the retention and management of riverine and residual vegetation communities, and future vegetation-management guidelines should be cognisant of the potential impacts of clearing even small areas of critical habitat. We also highlight eight management implications.

Non-invasive assessment of stress in captive numbats, Myrmecobius fasciatus (Mammalia: Marsupialia), using faecal cortisol measurement

Annual patterns of faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) secretion were examined in six captive numbats (Myrmecobius fasciatus). The use of enzyme-immunoassay for the measurement of FCM in the numbat faeces was validated using an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge and the resultant FCM measurements represent the first description of adrenal endocrinology in this species. Total overall, baseline and peak FCM mean concentrations varied according to individual, but not gender. For males, mean baseline and overall FCM secretion was higher in spring in summer (compared to winter and autumn) and was elevated during the breeding season. For females, mean baseline FCM secretion did not differ by season or breeding season, but mean overall FCM secretion was elevated during the breeding season. Thus, male (but not female) numbats display an annual change in FCM secretion that is strongly linked to their seasonal pattern of reproduction. Significant FCM elevations (n=178) were observed in response to 20 different stressors, with these stressors being allocated to one of six categories: ANIM, ENVIRO, HAND, HEALTH, MAN and UNK. The mean proportion of positive responses to each category varied according to category, season and breeding season, but did not vary by individual or gender. ANIM and HEALTH stressors elicited a higher response rate than all other categories and an increase in the number of ANIM, ENVIRO, and HEALTH stressors were observed during the breeding season. Although there were multiple stressors within the captive environment that the numbats reacted to, this did not translate into a welfare issue.

Low-density koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the mulgalands of south-west Queensland. I. Faecal pellet sampling protocol

Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in eastern Australia are threatened by land clearing for agricultural and urban development. At the same time, conservation efforts are hindered by a dearth of information about inland populations. Faecal deposits offer a source of information that is readily available and easily collected non-invasively. We detail a faecal pellet sampling protocol that was developed for use in a large rangeland biogeographic region. The method samples trees in belt transects, uses a thorough search at the tree base to quickly identify trees with koala pellets under them, then estimates the abundance of faecal pellets under those trees using 1-m(2) quadrats. There was a strong linear relationship between these estimates and a complete enumeration of pellet abundance under the same trees. We evaluated the accuracy of our method in detecting trees where pellets were present by means of a misclassification index that was weighed more heavily for missed trees that had high numbers of pellets under them. This showed acceptable accuracy in all landforms except riverine, where some trees with large numbers of pellets were missed. Here, accuracy in detecting pellet presence was improved by sampling with quadrats, rather than basal searches. Finally, we developed a method to reliably age pellets and demonstrate how this protocol could be used with the faecal-standing-crop method to derive a regional estimate of absolute koala abundance.

Effect of field-weathered residues of pyriproxyfen on the predatory coccinellids Chilocorus circumdatus Gyllenhal and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant

The residual toxicity of field-weathered residues of the juvenile hormone analogue insecticide, pyriproxyfen was evaluated against two coccinellids, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant and Chilocorus circumdatus Gyllenhal, key predators of mealybugs and scales in citrus in southeast Queensland. Pyriproxyfen was applied as a high volume spray at 0.1, 1, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/L to late Valencia orange trees, and larvae and adults of C. montrouzieri and C. circumdatus were exposed to leaves picked at intervals varying from 0 to 112 days after spraying. The effect on fourth and fifth instar larvae and pupation and subsequent adult emergence, and on the viability of eggs from treated adults, was measured. Regression models were developed to relate larval mortality and egg hatch to pyriproxyfen concentration and weathering time. Pyriproxyfen killed larvae or prevented pupation of 50% of C. montrouzieri for 64 days at 10 mg/L and for a predicted 167 days at 100 mg/L; the effect on C. circumdatus was even greater, lasting a predicted 210 days at 10 mg/L, Egg-hatch (from adults exposed to treated leaves) was suppressed at 10 mg/L for 28 days in C. montrouzieri and for 50 days in C. circumdatus; at 100 mg/L, suppression extended to 50 days and a predicted 478 days, respectively. The combined effects on larvae and eggs of rates between 10 and 100 mg/L would be extremely disruptive to both species. Disruption was much less at 2 mg/L (lasting up to 3 weeks) and at 5 mg/L (lasting up to 7 weeks). Because of its potency against scale insects, pyriproxyfen may yet have a role in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) providing it is used very sparingly at dosage rates no greater than 2 mg/L.

Successful Artificial Insemination in the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Using Extended and Extended-Chilled Semen Collected by Electroejaculation

Abstract Artificial insemination in the koala using chilled, electroejaculated semen provides for a marked improvement in the reproductive and genetic management of captive koala colonies in Australia and internationally, and makes available the option of using semen collected from wild populations to expand restricted gene pools. Dilution of koala semen for artificial insemination is complicated because koalas are induced ovulators, and it is thought that ovulating factors are present in the semen, so that semen extension for preservation purposes might be anticipated to result in a failure to induce ovulation. The first two experiments of this study were designed to determine whether artificial insemination using undiluted, extended, and extended-chilled semen collected by electroejaculation was capable of inducing a luteal phase and/or the production of pouch young. In Experiment 1, 1 ml undiluted electroejaculated semen, 2 ml diluted (1:1) semen, and 1 ml diluted (1:1) semen resulted in seven of nine, six of nine, and six of nine koalas showing a luteal phase, respectively; four pouch young were produced in each treatment. A second artificial insemination experiment was conducted in which 2 ml diluted (1:1) semen was administered in three groups of nine koalas. The first group received semen that had been collected and diluted immediately without chilling, the second group was deposited with semen stored chilled for 24 h, and the final group received semen that had been chilled for 72 h. In the first group, five females had a luteal phase, but none became pregnant. In group 2, two of the five females that had a luteal phase gave birth, whereas in group 3, four of the six females that had a luteal phase produced pouch young. In addition, experiment 3 was conducted to determine whether it was possible to produce pouch young by naturally mating koalas that were in the latter stages of their behavioral estrus; this information is important to the logistics of transporting koala semen for artificial insemination by establishing the maximum time frame in which females might be expected to shed a fertile oocyte. Of the 12 females mated on Day 8 of estrus, 6 gave birth, whereas only 3 of the 10 females naturally mated on Day 10 of estrus produced pouch young. The majority of females (21 of 22) in experiment 3 showed evidence of a luteal phase. Together, these experiments have shown that it is possible to use undiluted, extended, or extended-chilled semen to produce koala offspring up to Day 8 of estrus at conception rates similar to those achieved following natural mating. These findings represent a significant advancement in the use of reproductive technology in marsupials and provide the basis for the shipment of koala semen over long distances. The pouch young produced in this study represent the first marsupials born following artificial insemination of extended-chilled semen and bring the total number of koalas produced by artificial insemination to 31.

THE SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF KOALA FAECAL PELLETS

Faecal pellets were collected under trees used by free-ranging koalas in south-western, central and south-eastern Queensland to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of pellets with respect to the activity of koalas. Deposition of faecal pellets by koalas was analysed according to the time of day at which the tree was occupied. For free-ranging koalas, 47% of daily faecal pellet output was recovered using a collection mat of 8 × 8 m placed under a day-roost tree. The best predictor of pellet production was the presence of a koala in a tree between 1800 hours and midnight. For other periods, there was no relationship between period of tree occupancy and faecal pellet recovery. There was a significant relationship between the average length of tree occupancy and the time of day that a koala entered a tree.

Low-density koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations in the mulgalands of south-west Queensland. III. Broad-scale patterns of habitat use

To date there have been few quantitative studies of the distribution of, and relative habitat utilisation by, koalas in the mulgalands of Queensland. To examine these parameters we applied habitat-accessibility and relative habitat-utilisation indices to estimates of faecal pellet density sampled at 149 sites across the region. Modelling the presence of pellets using logistic regression showed that the potential range of accessible habitats and relative habitat use varied greatly across the region, with rainfall being probably the most important determinant of distribution. Within that distribution, landform and rainfall were both important factors affecting habitat preference. Modelling revealed vastly different probabilities of finding a pellet under trees depending on the tree species, canopy size, and location within the region.

Non-invasive methods of oestrus detection in captive southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons)

In order to develop a reliable method of oestrus detection in captive southern hairy-nosed (SHN) wombats, the reproductive behaviour of four groups of adult animals (1 male:2 female) was monitored using video surveillance and activity using movement-sensitive radio transmitters for a period of 12 months. During this time faecal samples were collected every 3 days and subsequently analysed for progesterone and oestradiol-17beta metabolites. In an attempt to induce and characterise oestrus-specific behaviour, each female was administered a subcutaneous injection of either 0.01 (n=2), 0.1 (n=4) or 0.2mg/kg (n=2) of oestradiol benzoate in one of two hormone trials. Remote video surveillance was an effective tool for detecting the reproductive behaviour of the captive SHN wombat. Courtship (n=426) and mating (n=46) was observed in five wombats and consisted of 13 distinctive behaviours in six consecutive phases: (1) investigation, (2) attraction, (3) chase, (4) restraint, (5) copulation and (6) recovery. Female sexual receptivity occurred at night and lasted for approximately only 13-h. Faecal progesterone metabolite analysis proved to be a reliable method for mapping oestrous cycle activity, but was not useful for the prediction of oestrus. Six out of the eight female wombats displayed periods of elevated progesterone secretion, corresponding to a mean (+/-SE) luteal phase of 20.9+/-1.1 days (n=23). Oestrous cycle length, defined as the interval between two successive luteal phases separated by a follicular phase was 31.8+/-1.1 days (n=12) and consisted of a follicular phase of 11.6+/-0.6 days (n=12). Changes in the secretion of faecal oestradiol-17beta metabolites provided little instructive information on oestrous cycle activity and were not associated with oestrus. Administration of oestradiol benzoate resulted in a spike of oestradiol-17beta metabolites in the faeces 3-4 days later, but was not dose dependent nor did it facilitate reproductive behaviour in either sex. Activity was not linked to key events in the oestrous cycle and appears not to be suitable as a method for detecting oestrus in the SHN wombat. We therefore recommend the use of 24-h video surveillance as the most reliable method for oestrus detection in captive SHN wombats.

Effects of cryopreservation on mitochondrial function and heterogeneity, lipid raft stability and phosphatidylserine translocation in koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) spermatozoa

Koala sperm mitochondria were examined by cryomicroscopy using the fluorescent probe JC-1, which distinguishes high (red) and low (green) mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). At normal body temperature, approximately 70% of live and untreated spermatozoa exhibited high MMP whereas <3% of live untreated spermatozoa exhibited low potential. A third class, in which single midpieces contained mixed mitochondrial populations, was also detected. Heterogeneity was noted in the level of MMP between individual koalas, individual spermatozoa and even between mitochondrial gyres within single midpieces. MMP of the live sperm population was not significantly affected by glycerol but was suppressed by freezing and thawing treatments. After thawing, MMP declined significantly during rewarming, especially as the temperature increased from 5 to 35 degrees C. The distribution of the ganglioside GM1 was examined using fluorescent-labelled cholera toxin B. In fresh, untreated koala spermatozoa GM1 was detected on the head and midpiece, but not on the principal piece. No significant redistribution of GM1 was observed after chilling and cryotreatment. Phosphatidylserine translocation across the plasma membrane was examined using fluorescent-labelled annexin V. Few fresh spermatozoa exhibited phosphatidylserine translocation (approximately 1%); this was not increased by chilling or cryopreservation, thus implying that cryotreatment had little effect on plasma membrane lipid asymmetry.