A T Nasr

Evaluation of the potential for diacetylenes as reporter molecules in 3D micelle gel dosimetry

Radiochromic micelle gel dosimeters are promising for three-dimensional (3D) radiation dosimetry because they can be read out by optical CT techniques and they have superior spatial stability compared to polymer and Fricke gel dosimeters. This study evaluates the use of diacetylenes as reporter molecules in micelle gel dosimeters. Several gels containing pentacosa-10,12-diynoic acid (PCDA) emulsified using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) changed from colourless to blue upon irradiation. Unfortunately, all phantoms that experienced a colour change were turbid and would be unsuitable for 3D dosimetry. Two techniques (use of organic solvent and aqueous-phase additives) were successful in increasing colloidal stability to prevent the turbidity problem, but none of the resulting transparent gels changed colour in response to radiation. Transparent PCDA emulsions were prepared using NaOH solutions with no SDS or other emulsifier, but these transparent emulsions also did not change colour. Only turbid gels and emulsions with precipitated particles responded to radiation. These results indicate that the colour change was due to the oligomerization within precipitated PCDA crystals, and that liquid-phase emulsified PCDA did not undergo oligomerization. As a result, PCDA is not suitable for use in micelle gel dosimeters, and other radiochromic reporter molecules will need to be identified.

Delivery validation of VMAT stereotactic ablative body radiotherapy at commissioning

Dosimetric validation of two volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR) plans was completed as part of the commissioning process of this technique in our clinic. Static and dynamic ion chamber, EBT3 film and leuco crystal violet (LCV) micelle gel measurements were acquired using a motion phantom with appropriate inserts for each dosimeter. The results show good agreement between measured and calculated plan dose.

Leuco-crystal-violet micelle gel dosimeters: I. Influence of recipe components and potential sensitizers

Radiochromic leuco crystal violet (LCV) micelle gel dosimeters are promising three-dimensional radiation dosimeters because of their spatial stability and suitability for optical readout. The effects of surfactant type and surfactant concentration on dose sensitivity of LCV micelle gels are tested, demonstrating that dose sensitivity and initial colour of the gel increases with increasing Triton x-100 (Tx100) concentration. Using Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) in place of Tx100 produces gels that are nearly colourless prior to irradiation, but reduces the dose sensitivity. The separate effects of Tri-chloro acetic acid concentration and pH are investigated, revealing that controlling the pH near 3.6 is crucial for achieving high dose sensitivity. The sensitizing effect of chlorinated species on dose sensitivity is tested using 2,2,2-trichloroethanol (TCE), chloroform, and 1,1,1-trichloro-2-methyl-2-propanol hemihydrate. TCE gives the largest improvement in dose sensitivity and is recommended for use in micelle gel dosimeters because it is less volatile and safer to use than chloroform. Preliminary experiments on a new gel containing CTAB as the surfactant and TCE show that this new gel gives a dose sensitivity that is 24% higher than that of previous LCV micelle gels and is nearly colourless prior to irradiation.

Leuco-crystal-violet micelle gel dosimeters: II. Recipe optimization and testing

In this study, recipe optimization of Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) micelle gels made with the surfactant Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) and the chemical sensitizer 2,2,2-trichloroethanol (TCE) was aided by a two-level three-factor designed experiment. The optimized recipe contains 0.75 mM LCV, 17.0 mM CTAB, 120 mM TCE, 25.0 mM tri-chloro acetic acid (TCAA), 4 wt% gelatin and ~96 wt% water. Dose sensitivity of the optimized gel is 1.5 times higher than that of Jordans standard LCV micelle gel. Spatial integrity of the 3D dose distribution information in 1L phantoms filled with this recipe is maintained for >120 d. Unfortunately, phantoms made using the optimized recipe showed dose-rate dependence (14% difference in optical attenuation at the peak dose using electron beam irradiations at 100 and 400 MU min(-1)). Further testing suggests that the surfactant CTAB is the cause of this dose rate behaviour.

Fundamentals of gel dosimeters

Fundamental chemical and physical phenomena that occur in Fricke gel dosimeters, polymer gel dosimeters, micelle gel dosimeters and genipin gel dosimeters are discussed. Fricke gel dosimeters are effective even though their radiation sensitivity depends on oxygen concentration. Oxygen contamination can cause severe problems in polymer gel dosimeters, even when THPC is used. Oxygen leakage must be prevented between manufacturing and irradiation of polymer gels, and internal calibration methods should be used so that contamination problems can be detected. Micelle gel dosimeters are promising due to their favourable diffusion properties. The introduction of micelles to gel dosimetry may open up new areas of dosimetry research wherein a range of water-insoluble radiochromic materials can be explored as reporter molecules.

Opportunities for improving the performance of LCV micelle gel dosimeters: II. Recipe optimization

Designed experiments and empirical models are used to optimize a Leuco Crystal Violet (LCV) micelle gel recipe to improve dose sensitivity and initial colour. The optimized recipe contains 0.75 mM LCV, 17.0 mM Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB), 120 mM 2,2,2-trichloroethanol (TCE), 25.0 mM tri-chloro acetic acid (TCAA), 4 wt% gelatin and ~96 wt% water. Dose sensitivity of the optimized gel is 1.5 times higher than Jordans standard LCV gel. Spatial integrity of the 3D dose distribution information in 1L jar phantoms made using this recipe is maintained for more than two weeks.

Mathematical modelling of response of polymer gel dosimeters to brachytherapy radiation

A dynamic partial differential equation (PDE) model is used to simulate effects of a single Ir192 brachytherapy seed on the amount and composition of polymer formed during polyacrylamide gel (PAG) dosimetry. Simulations are conducted for a point-source brachytherapy seed placed at the center of a 6%T 50% C anoxic PAG phantom. The seed is removed after one minute, but polymerization is simulated up to a final time of 24 hours. Simulation results indicate that changes occur in both the mass of polymer formed per unit dose and in the crosslink density as a function of the radial distance from the brachytherapy seed. For example, at a distance of 5 mm from the seed, 41 mg of polymer form per Gy of radiation absorbed (after 24 hours), whereas at a larger distance of 5 cm from the seed 75 mg of polymer form per Gy. The polymer that forms near the seed is predicted to have a higher level of crosslinking than the polymer that forms further away. These results suggest potential calibration problems that may occur during brachytherapy dosimetry using polymer gels.

Opportunities for improving the performance of LCV micelle gel dosimeters: I. Preliminary investigation

The effects of the various components of leuco crystal violet (LCV) micelle gels on dose sensitivity and initial colour are tested. Dose sensitivity and gel turbidity are influenced by tri-chloro acetic acid (TCAA) concentration, with the highest dose sensitivity obtained at ~21.5 mM. Increasing Triton x-100 (Txl00) concentration improved dose sensitivity but, unfortunately, increased initial colour of the gel. Using Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) in place of Tx100 produces gels that are nearly colourless prior to irradiation, but reduces the dose sensitivity. The effects of chlorinated species on dose sensitivity are tested using 2,2,2-trichloroethanol (TCE), chloroform, and 1,1,1-trichloro-2-methyl-2-propanol hemihydrate (TCMPH). TCE gives the largest improvement in dose sensitivity and is recommended for use in micelle gel dosimeters because it is less volatile and safer to use than chloroform. A new gel containing CTAB as the surfactant and TCE gives improved dose sensitivity compared to previous LCV micelle gels.

Preliminary evaluation of diacetylene-based 3D micelle gel dosimeters

Emulsified diacetylenes as reporter molecules in micelle gel dosimeters were evaluated in the current article. It was observed that gels containing PCDA emulsified in deionized water using SDS changed from colourless to blue upon irradiation. Unfortunately, recipes that led to turbid gels resulted in a colour change, but transparent gels did not change colour. The colour change may be due to the oligomerization of precipitated solid PCA crystals, rather than emulsified PCDA.