A. V. Lubenchenko

Photoelectron Emission for Layers of Finite Thickness

Basic tools that describe the energy and angular distributions of photoelectrons emitted by inhomogeneous targets are presented. These are the functions of reflection and transmission, the function of photoelectron emission, the equation for photoelectron flow, and the equation for the transmission function, which describes the dynamics of the angular and energy spectra of photoelectrons when they move in the tar-get. The determining influence of the effects of multiple elastic scattering on the angular distribution of photoelectrons is shown. It is demonstrated in which way and by how much the effect of brightness body rotation, well known in optics, influences the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy signal. Along with analytical solutions, the results of simulation of the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy signals are presented.

Extraction of cross-sections of inelastic scattering from energy spectra of reflected atomic particles

REELS spectra of the electrons reflected off niobium are measured with energy resolution <0.5 eV within the 5–40 eV energy range of the probing beam. The measurements were performed for the scattering angles θ = 45° and θ = 120° by means of two electron guns. The process of energy losses is described within the framework of a model with three different energy loss laws: surface, intermediate, and bulk layers are considered. Differential cross-sections of inelastic scattering are represented in the form of simple equations.

Difference in charge transport properties of Ni-Nb thin films with native and artificial oxide

Here, we report on the properties of native and artificial oxide amorphous thin film on a surface of an amorphous Ni-Nb sample. Careful measurements of local current-voltage characteristics of the system Ni-Nb / NiNb oxide/Pt, were carried out in contact mode of an atomic force microscope. Native oxide showed n-type conductivity, while in the artificial one exhibited p-type one. The shape of current-voltage characteristic curves is unique in both cases and no analogical behavior is found in the literature. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements were used to detect chemical composition of the oxide films and the oxidation state of the alloy components. Detailed analysis of the XPS data revealed that the structure of natural Ni-Nb oxide film consists of Ni-NbOx top layer and nickel enriched bottom layer which provides n-type conductivity. In contrast, in the artificial oxide film Nb is oxidized completely to Nb2O5, Ni atoms migrate into bulk Ni-Nb matrix. Electron depletion layer is formed at the Ni-Nb/Nb2O5 interface providing ptype conductivity.

On the application of the invariant embedding method and the radiative transfer equation codes for surface state analysis

The equivalence of equations, describing the various physical phenomena, always provides a mutual enrichment of theories. For example, the analogy of the force lines of the electric field and the current lines of a viscous incompressible fluid created the Ostrogradsky–Gauss theorem. The authors of this chapter have background in the theory of electron transfer [1–3] and light ion transfer [4]. Atmospheric remote sensing and electron spectroscopy have much in common in the principle of their methodology. In both cases the inverse problem is solved on the base of spectra of the reflected beam of photons or particles. The spectra are formed due to the interaction between the beam and the investigated medium.

Direct numerical reconstruction of inelastic cross sections from REELS and ISS spectra

The reconstruction of inelastic scattering cross sections faces two problems: the measured signal (energy spectrum) is a multiple scattering signal; the inelastic energy loss is nonuniform over the target depth. In this paper, we present a method for numerical reconstruction of cross sections from characteristic energy loss spectra, which efficiently solves both problems within a multilayer model. It is shown that the inverse problem of cross section extraction in the three-layer model is ill-conditioned, and the method is practically inapplicable to the three-layer model. The direct numerical reconstruction method yields a strongly “noised” result and can be applied only to obtain a priori information on the inelastic cross section form for further fitting. Using a combination of two methods, inelastic scattering cross sections were reconstructed for aluminum from characteristic energy loss spectra at probe beam energies of 5 and 40 keV. It is shown that ionization in solids should be described as a local process and as a collective one using the dispersion formula similarly to the case of excitation plasmons.

Reflection of keV-energy electrons from multilayer surfaces

The energy spectra of electrons reflected from multilayer targets are studied theoretically and experimentally. A self-consistent theory of electron reflection from multilayer surfaces is constructed. Simple analytical models of electron reflection that illustrate the feasibility of the depth profiling of multilayer targets are presented. The energy spectra of electrons normally incident on Nb/Si and Nb/Al/Nb/Si targets and reflected from them at an angle of 45° to the normal are taken. A method for the depth profiling of such structures is elaborated.

Study of Al∕Nb interface by spectroscopy of reflected electrons

We have studied Al/Nb interface with help of spectroscopy of reflected electrons. Ion sputtering combined with monitoring of Auger peaks has been used to approach the interface. The developed method of quantitative interpretation of spectra allowed us to characterize the distribution of Al and Nb in the interface region with a nanometer depth resolution. The Al/Nb interface was found to have an intermediate layer of about 10 nm thickness, which is more likely due to the interface roughness, rather than diffusion smearing. We discuss the possibility to distinguish by means of spectroscopy of reflected electrons either material under analysis is a single phase or a mixture of two phases.

Influence of the processes of multiple elastic scattering on the angular distributions of X-ray photoelectrons

Based on the boundary-value problem for the transport equation, the angular distributions of photoelectrons are analyzed using the method of invariant immersion. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation of the process of photoelectron emission is carried out. The determining influence of the process of multiple elastic scattering on the photoelectron spectra is shown. Simple analytical formulas for the angular distributions of photoelectrons are obtained in the small-angle approximation. The results of MC simulation and those of other authors are compared.

Scattering of electrons by vacuum fluctuations of plasma waves

Interaction between a probe electron beam and longitudinal electromagnetic oscillations of the Fermi plasma in metals (plasmons) is investigated by the methods of quantum electrodynamics. The quantum description of plasmons allows one to construct a consistent theory of the scattering process and point out the applicability limits of the existing semiclassical theories. The quantum description of plasmons leads to the concept of electromagnetic vacuum of longitudinal waves, which is the subject of the present study. The vacuum of longitudinal waves significantly deforms the shape of plasma dielectric permittivity, thus leading to the broadening of Langmuir peaks of scattered electrons, which has so far resisted theoretical analysis. The presence of the electromagnetic vacuum of longitudinal plasma waves has a considerable effect on the integral scattering probability of electrons by plasmons.

Effect of multiple elastic scattering on X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy signals over a wide range of energy loss

Spectra from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measured over a wide range of energy loss are analyzed. The analytic description of XPS spectra over a wide range of energy loss is based on a precise solution to the problem of elastic scattering of photoelectrons in solids. A precise numerical solution is obtained by means of discrete ordinates method. The XPS spectrum is represented as a series by quantity of inelastic scattering. The inconsistency of ignoring multiple elastic processes by using straight line approximations (SLAs) in describing XPS energy spectra is demonstrated.