Ab Stevels

Enhancing e-waste estimates: Improving data quality by multivariate Input–Output Analysis

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (or e-waste) is one of the fastest growing waste streams, which encompasses a wide and increasing spectrum of products. Accurate estimation of e-waste generation is difficult, mainly due to lack of high quality data referred to market and socio-economic dynamics. This paper addresses how to enhance e-waste estimates by providing techniques to increase data quality. An advanced, flexible and multivariate Input-Output Analysis (IOA) method is proposed. It links all three pillars in IOA (product sales, stock and lifespan profiles) to construct mathematical relationships between various data points. By applying this method, the data consolidation steps can generate more accurate time-series datasets from available data pool. This can consequently increase the reliability of e-waste estimates compared to the approach without data processing. A case study in the Netherlands is used to apply the advanced IOA model. As a result, for the first time ever, complete datasets of all three variables for estimating all types of e-waste have been obtained. The result of this study also demonstrates significant disparity between various estimation models, arising from the use of data under different conditions. It shows the importance of applying multivariate approach and multiple sources to improve data quality for modelling, specifically using appropriate time-varying lifespan parameters. Following the case study, a roadmap with a procedural guideline is provided to enhance e-waste estimation studies.

Ecodesign in Consumer Electronics: Past, Present, and Future

In the past 20 years, the booming consumer electronics (CE) industry has been rapidly changing the economic and social landscape. This phenomenon is partly raised by the development of ecodesign, which is dedicated to improving the environmental performance of CE, throughout its life cycle. The theory and application of ecodesign have both been improved and expanded, owing largely to the development of more environmentally friendly materials, newly emerging technology, and legislation mandating better handling of CE—both in manufacturing and in waste treatment. Yet many challenges and opportunities remain, including the pressure that the huge CE market exerts on resources; new materials and technology such as carbon nanomaterial and the Internet of Things; the need to balance business profit with environmental impacts and benefits; and a significant shift of focus in the processing of electronic waste—from dismantling for recycling to disassembly for remanufacturing. This critical review article can help create sustainable development strategies from a local solution to global opportunities that will elevate ecodesign or design for environment to a new level in new materials selecting, CE industry development, integrated e-waste management, and legislation.

Essential perspectives for Design for Environment: Experiences from the electronics industry

Consolidation of knowledge, information and experiences in application of Design for Environment principles is done at various levels, ranging from easy to understand slogans to design guidelines, and even to tailor-made solutions. This brings about that dissemination of this knowledge should be done taking the intended audience and relevant contexts into account—especially when dissemination is done in the form of ‘principles’, which are usually presented without context at all. In this paper it is discussed how interpretations of consolidating principles can lead to misinterpretations and even counterproductive actions. At least three principles can be identified that should be taken into account when disseminating DFE knowledge, discussing (1) different perspectives of what is environmentally friendly, (2) the life-cycle perspective, and (3) the integration of environmental and economical considerations.

Theory and practice of environmental benchmarking in a major consumer electronics company

Environmental benchmarking has, since 1997, been the basis of many ecodesign‐related activities at both Delft University of Technology and Philips Consumer Electronics in Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Cooperative efforts have led to a robust, reproducible and practical environmental benchmark method. The method is based on the assessment of the five focal areas: energy, material and weight, packaging, potentially toxic substances, and recyclability. The generation and prioritisation of green improvement options is done by addressing consumer and societal feasibility as well as technical and financial feasibility. Ongoing research continuously stimulates the methodology and practical implementation. This has created a tremendous awareness in the Philips Consumer Electronics organisation regarding product‐related environmental matters, because the method is embedded in an overall strategy that considers the interests of all internal and external stakeholders.

Eco-efficiency considerations on the end-of-life of consumer electronic products

In order to improve the eco-efficiency at the end-of-life phase of consumer electronic products, comprehensive assessments should be made. The Quotes for environmentally WEighted RecyclabiliTY and Eco-Efficiency method (QWERTY/EE) developed at the Delft University of Technology is applied to aim at minimal end-of-life treatment costs against maximal environmental recovery. In this paper, the outcomes of this eco-efficiency concept are presented based on a range of improvement options like changing shredding and separation settings, plastic recycling, glass recycling, or separate sorting of certain products. The analysis of more than 75 different consumer electronic products clearly shows groups in state-of-the-art recycling performance in both environmental and economic terms and a substantial distinction between the various product categories. From there, the evaluation takes place of technical improvements in relation to current best-practice recycling. Even more, with the QWERTY/EE concept it is made possible to select and rank improvement options of current and future end-of-life processing and to determine which options bring substantial environmental gain in relation to financial investments made. For glass dominated products, an increase in glass recycling results in significant environmental improvements. The same counts for separate sorting and treatment of precious metal dominated products with a relatively high precious metal content like cellular phones. However, economies of scale are a major assumption that has to be fulfilled in this case. Other conclusions and outcomes are that plastic recycling seems only eco-efficient for large housings of appliances already undergoing disassembly due to the presence of a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display (LCD). For small and medium-sized housings, the extra costs of plastic recycling are high in relation to the environmental improvement realized. In most cases, dedicated shredding and separation of metal dominated products does not lead to substantial environmental or economic improvements. In general, it is shown that the various options to increase the eco-efficiency of end-of-life systems lead to very mixed environmental and economic results. As a consequence, end-of-life policy strategies should be evaluated, and in some cases revised, to support and enhance the most eco-efficient improvement options. Regarding the sensitivity of the results, it is shown that although the different environmental assessment models prioritize individual materials in a different order, the results for the improvement options on a system level are pointing in the same direction, except for plastic recycling scenarios.

Take back and treatment of discarded electronics: a scientific update

This paper indicates that the performance of tack-back and treatment of electronic waste (e-waste) system can be improved substantially. This can be reached by better taking into account in a better way the big variety in material composition and potential toxicity of electrical and electronic products - from a technical, organizational and regulatory perspective. Realizing that there is no ‘one size fit for all’ and combining smart tailor made solutions with economic of sale will result in the best environmental gain/cost ratio. Several examples show how science and engineering have supported or will support this approach.

Where did WEEE go wrong in Europe? Practical and academic lessons for the US

This paper links lessons drawn from the WEEE directive implementation process going on in Europe with academic lessons obtained from the TU Delft eco-efficiency studies on electronics recycling. The combination of eco-efficiency and organizational analysis is proven to be very useful for enhancing stakeholder interactions on improving end-of-life chains. From this, a roadmap is proposed for US developments, in order to prevent similar chaos as with the current EU WEEE introduction process. The key issues for setting up take-back systems for discarded consumer electronics are addressed: How to organize take-back and recycling in an eco-efficient way plus how to align all stakeholder interests and positions in a practical way at the same time for the short, medium and long term?

Metrics for end-of-life strategies (ELSEIM)

The environmental impact of a products end-of-life is modeled, using the End-of-Life Strategy Environmental Impact Model (ELSEIM). The model is based on data from case studies provided by Philips Consumer Electronics. The model calculates the environmental impact across all possible end-of-life strategies (reuse, service, remanufacture, recycle, and disposal). The environmental impacts include the following: manufacturing or extraction, transportation, energy, end-of-life, and packaging. Results from case studies from Philips Consumer Electronics show that the popular belief that reuse is the best end-of-life strategy to reduce environmental impact is only partly true: (i) for television, the reuse strategy instead of the current recycling with disassembly strategy brings little gains; if future energy consumption of televisions decreases further the gain will turn into a loss; and (ii) cellular phones are assessed as good candidates for reuse and should be redesigned accordingly.

Take-back of discarded consumer electronic products from the perspective of the producer: conditions for success

Abstract Take-back and recycling costs of discarded television sets can be brought down substantially by a combination of design improvements, technology improvements and by achieving economy of scale in the processing. Authorities can enhance the eco-efficiency further by appropriate supporting policies. It is estimated that, compared with the present situation, the total environmental gain over cost ratio can be pushed up by a factor 4 to 8. Prospects to improve end-of-life performance of smaller consumer electronic products (audio, VCR, etc.) are much less. In view of the fact, however, that television sets make approximately 60% by weight of the total waste stream, the improvement potential of the total stream is large.

LCA for ecodesign: the Dutch experience

Within the Delft University of Technologys DfS (design for sustainability) program, more than a hundred industrial ecodesign case studies have been executed during the period 1993-1998, both through graduate and PhD students as well as staff members of this program at the Subfaculty of Industrial Design Engineering. In the ecodesign approach of the Delft program several types of lifecycle thinking are advocated. This refers both to the selection of attention fields, to the creativity phase (finding green options) as well as to the environmental validation of the design improvement proposals. This approach is embodied both in manuals and in tools. The lifecycle thinking analysis methodology has a pivotal position in the ecodesign processes and tool applications as we operate them. Particularly in selection of attention fields and in the validation stage, LCA utilization is substantial. To a lesser extent this also holds for the creativity phase itself. In this paper, the Delft experiences with LCA in the practical ecodesign projects executed within industry are evaluated. This evaluation leads to the identification of both limitations and opportunities and directions for action and research efforts to enhance LCA. The paper discussee: LCA from the problem solving perspective; methodology issues; data issues; LCA from the business perspective; LCA as tool for communication to stakeholders; standardization; and future of LCA.