Abdul S. Ethayathulla

Inhibition of protein aggregation: supramolecular assemblies of arginine hold the key.

Background Aggregation of unfolded proteins occurs mainly through the exposed hydrophobic surfaces. Any mechanism of inhibition of this aggregation should explain the prevention of these hydrophobic interactions. Though arginine is prevalently used as an aggregation suppressor, its mechanism of action is not clearly understood. We propose a mechanism based on the hydrophobic interactions of arginine. Methodology We have analyzed arginine solution for its hydrotropic effect by pyrene solubility and the presence of hydrophobic environment by 1-anilino-8-naphthalene sulfonic acid fluorescence. Mass spectroscopic analyses show that arginine forms molecular clusters in the gas phase and the cluster composition is dependent on the solution conditions. Light scattering studies indicate that arginine exists as clusters in solution. In the presence of arginine, the reverse phase chromatographic elution profile of Alzheimers amyloid beta 1-42 (Aβ1-42) peptide is modified. Changes in the hydrodynamic volume of Aβ1-42 in the presence of arginine measured by size exclusion chromatography show that arginine binds to Aβ1-42. Arginine increases the solubility of Aβ1-42 peptide in aqueous medium. It decreases the aggregation of Aβ1-42 as observed by atomic force microscopy. Conclusions Based on our experimental results we propose that molecular clusters of arginine in aqueous solutions display a hydrophobic surface by the alignment of its three methylene groups. The hydrophobic surfaces present on the proteins interact with the hydrophobic surface presented by the arginine clusters. The masking of hydrophobic surface inhibits protein-protein aggregation. This mechanism is also responsible for the hydrotropic effect of arginine on various compounds. It is also explained why other amino acids fail to inhibit the protein aggregation.

Aspirin induces its anti-inflammatory effects through its specific binding to phospholipase A2: Crystal structure of the complex formed between phospholipase A2 and aspirin at 1.9 Å resolution

Phospholipase A2 is potentially an important target for structure-based rational drug design. In order to determine the involvement of phospholipase A2 in the action of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), the crystal structure of the complex formed between phospholipase A2 and aspirin has been determined at 1.9 Å resolution. The structure contains 915 protein atoms, 1 calcium ion, 13 atoms of aspirin and 105 water molecules. The observed electron density of the aspirin molecule in the structure was of very high quality thus allowing the precise determination of its atomic coordinates leading to the clear description of its interactions with the enzyme. The structure of the complex clearly shows that aspirin is literally embedded in the hydrophobic environment of PLA2. It is so placed in the substrate binding channel that it forms several important attractive interactions with calcium ion, His 48 and Asp 49. Thus, the structure of the complex clearly shows that aspirin occupies a favourable place in the specific binding site of PLA2. The binding studies have shown that acetyl salicylate (aspirin) binds to PLA2 enzyme specifically with a dissociation constant of 6.4×10−6 M. The structural details and binding data suggest that the inhibition of PLA2 by aspirin is of pharmacological significance and part of its anti-inflammatory effects may be due to its binding with PLA2.

Polysaccharide binding sites in hyaluronate lyase – crystal structures of native phage–encoded hyaluronate lyase and its complexes with ascorbic acid and lactose

Hyaluronate lyases are a class of endoglycosaminidase enzymes with a high level of complexity and heterogeneity. The main function of the Streptococcus pyogenes bacteriophage protein hyaluronate lyase, HylP2, is to degrade hyaluronan into unsaturated disaccharide units. HylP2 was cloned, over‐expressed and purified to homogeneity. The recombinant HylP2 exists as a homotrimer with a molecular mass of approximately 110 kDa under physiological conditions. The HylP2 was crystallized and the crystals were soaked in two separate reservoir solutions containing ascorbic acid and lactose, respectively. The crystal structures of native HylP2 and its two complexes with ascorbic acid and lactose have been determined. HylP2 folds into four distinct domains with a central core consisting of 16 antiparallel β‐strands forming an irregular triangular tube designated as triple‐stranded β‐helix. The structures of complexes show that three molecules each of ascorbic acid and lactose bind to protein at the sugar binding groove in the triple‐stranded β‐helix domain. Both ascorbic acid and lactose molecules occupy almost identical subsites in the long saccharide binding groove. Both ligands are involved in several hydrogen bonded interactions at each subsite. The binding characteristics and stereochemical properties indicate that Tyr264 may be involved in the catalytic activity of HylP2. The mutation of Tyr264 to Phe264 supports this observation.

Cloning, sequence analysis and homology modeling of a novel phospholipase A2 from Heterometrus fulvipes (Indian black scorpion)

We report the cloning and sequencing of group III phospholipaseA2 from Heterometrus fulvipes (HfPLA2), Indian black scorpion. The cDNA sequence codes for the mature portion of the group PLA2 of 103 amino acids. The sequence has 85% identity with Mesobuthus tamulus (Indian red scorpion) PLA2 and a 40% identity with bee venom PLA2 and human group III PLA2. Most of the essential features of group III PLA2 like Ca2+ binding loop and catalytic residues are conserved. Homology modeling was done with the known structure of group III bee venom PLA2. All the secondary structural motifs and the disulfide bridges are as predicted. The variation like the replacement of aspartic acid residue with glutamic acid in the well known histidine–aspartic acid dyad is a rare feature. This is the first structural model report of an Indian black scorpion PLA2.

Structure of a novel ribosome-inactivating protein from a hemi-parasitic plant inhabiting the northwestern Himalayas.

This is the first report of the structural studies of a novel ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) obtained from the Himalayan mistletoe (Viscum album) (HmRip). HmRip is a type II heterodimeric protein consisting of a toxic enzyme (A-chain) with an active site for ribosome inactivation and a lectin subunit (B-chain) with well defined sugar-binding sites. The crystal structure of HmRip has been determined at 3.8 A resolution and refined to a crystallographic R factor of 0.228 (R(free) = 0.271). A comparison of this structure with other type II RIPs reveals the presence of distinct structural features in the active site of the A-chain and in the 2gamma sugar-binding site of the B-chain. The conformation of the side chain of Tyr110, which is a conserved active-site residue in the A subunit, is strikingly different from those observed in other mistletoe RIPs, indicating its unique substrate-binding preference. The deletion of two important residues from the kink region after Ala231 in the 2gamma subdomain of the B-chain results in a significantly different conformation of the sugar-binding pocket. A ribosome-recognition site has also been identified in HmRip. The site is a shallow cavity, with the conserved residues Arg51, Asp70, Thr72 and Asn73 involved in the binding. The conformations of the antigenic epitopes of residues 1-20, 85-103 and 206-223 differ from those observed in other type II RIPs, resulting in the distinct antigenicity and pharmacological properties of HmRip.

Carbohydrate-binding properties of goat secretory glycoprotein (SPG-40) and its functional implications: structures of the native glycoprotein and its four complexes with chitin-like oligosaccharides.

A 40 kDa glycoprotein (SPG-40) secreted during involution works as a protective signalling factor through its binding to viable cells. The crystal structure of the native protein has been determined at 2.3 A resolution. This is the first report on the carbohydrate-binding properties of SPG-40; the structure determinations of the complexes of SPG-40 with four oligosaccharides of different lengths at resolutions ranging from 2.2 to 2.8 A are described. Carbohydrate-binding studies with N-acetylglucosamines (GlcNAc(n), n = 3-6) using fluorescence spectroscopy revealed poor binding effects with GlcNAc(3) and GlcNAc(4), while GlcNAc(5) and GlcNAc(6) bound to SPG-40 with considerable strength; the dissociation constants (K(d)) were estimated to be 260 +/- 3 and 18 +/- 4 microM, respectively. SPG-40 was cocrystallized with GlcNAc(3), GlcNAc(4), GlcNAc(5) and GlcNAc(6). The overall structure of native SPG-40 was essentially similar to that reported previously at low resolution. The structures of its complexes with GlcNAc(3), GlcNAc(4), GlcNAc(5) and GlcNAc(6) revealed the positions of these oligosaccharides in the carbohydrate-binding groove and provided insights into the mechanism of binding of oligosaccharides to SPG-40, indicating that the preferred subsites in the carbohydrate-binding groove of SPG-40 were from -4 to -2. The structure of the protein remained unperturbed upon binding of GlcNAc(3) and GlcNAc(4), but the structure changed significantly upon binding of GlcNAc(5) and GlcNAc(6). Significant conformational variations were observed in the sugar-binding groove: Trp78 partially flipped out of the barrel in GlcNAc(5), while in the GlcNAc(6) complex a completely flipped-out Trp78 was observed along with several other conformational changes, including those of Asp186 and Arg242. Such changes upon binding to carbohydrates have not previously been observed in chitin-hydrolyzing chitinases and reflect less favourable binding of carbohydrates to SPG-40. As this appears to essentially be a binding protein, this loss of binding affinity might be compensated by other intermolecular interactions such as protein-protein interactions and also by the binding of its own glycan chain.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the putative ABC transporter ATP-binding protein from Thermotoga maritima.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) are ATP hydrolysis-dependent transmembrane transporters. Here, the overproduction, purification and crystallization of the putative ABC transporter ATP-binding protein TM0222 from Thermotoga maritima are reported. The protein was crystallized in the hexagonal space group P6(4)22, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 148.49, c = 106.96 A, gamma = 120.0 degrees . Assuming the presence of two molecules in the asymmetric unit, the calculated V(M) is 2.84 A(3) Da(-1), which corresponds to a solvent content of 56.6%. A three-wavelength MAD data set was collected to 2.3 A resolution from SeMet-substituted TM0222 crystals. Data sets were collected on the BL38B1 beamline at SPring-8, Japan.

Structure of the buffalo secretory signalling glycoprotein at 2.8 Å resolution

The crystal structure of a 40 kDa signalling glycoprotein from buffalo (SPB-40) has been determined at 2.8 A resolution. SPB-40 acts as a protective signalling factor by binding to viable cells during the early phase of involution, during which extensive tissue remodelling occurs. It was isolated from the dry secretions of Murrah buffalo. It was purified and crystallized using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method with 19% ethanol as the precipitant. The protein was also cloned and its complete nucleotide and amino-acid sequences were determined. When compared with the sequences of other members of the family, the sequence of SPB-40 revealed two very important mutations in the sugar-binding region, in which Tyr120 changed to Trp120 and Glu269 changed to Trp269. The structure showed a significant distortion in the shape of the sugar-binding groove. The water structure in the groove is also drastically altered. The folding of the protein chain in the flexible region comprising segments His188-His197, Phe202-Arg212 and Tyr244-Pro260 shows large variations when compared with other proteins of the family.

Effect of chemical denaturants on the conformational stability of GyrB subunit of DNA gyrase from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi.

DNA gyrase, a type II topoisomerase maintains the topology of DNA by introducing negative supercoils using energy generated by ATP hydrolysis. It is composed of two subunits, GyrA and GyrB (GyrA2GyrB2 hetero-tetramer). GyrB comprises two domains, a 43kDa amino N-terminus (GBNTD) and 47kDa carboxyl C- terminus (GBCTD). Till now no study has been reported in terms of stability of Gyrase B and its domains using chemical denaturants related to its function. To understand the role of each domain in GyrB subunit, we estimated the thermodynamic stability of GBF and its individual domains using urea and GdmCl. Changes in secondary and tertiary structures were monitored using circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy. The Cm values for GBNTD, GBCTD and GBF proteins were found to be 2.25, 1.65 and 1.82M during GdmCl-induced denaturation and 2.95, 2.25 and 2.67M for urea-induced denaturation. It is observed that GBNTD is more stable than GBCTD and it contributes to overall stability of GyrB. The lower Cm and ΔG values reflect the flexibility of GBCTD to form the catalytic site along with GANTD for cleavage or religation reaction. Both GdmCl- and urea-induced denaturation of GyrB domains were reversible over the entire range of concentration.

Estimation of structure and stability of MurE ligase from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi

MurE ligase catalyzes the assembly of peptide moiety, an essential component of bacterial cell wall. We have explored the conformational stability and unfolding equilibrium behaviour of the protein MurE ligase by determining the conformational free energy, entropy and enthalpy parameters under stress conditions. MurE from Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi was cloned, expressed and purified. Conformational changes associated with increasing concentration of GdmCl- and urea-induced denaturation of MurE were monitored using Circular Dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopies. The secondary structural content of protein estimated by CD experiment is in close agreement with the predicted MurE ligase structure by homology modeling. Denaturant-induced transition curve was analyzed for thermodynamic parameters. Average values for MurE ligase of ΔGD0 = 3.13 kcal mol-1, m = 1.52 kcal mol-1 M-1 and Cm (=ΔGD0/m) = 2.05 M were calculated in the presence of GdmCl whereas in the case of urea these were ΔGD0 = 3.04 kcal mol-1, m = 1.20 kcal mol-1 M-1 and Cm (=ΔGD0/m) = 2.53 M. The observed superposition of normalized transition curve of two independent optical properties suggested that GdmCl- and urea-induced denaturation follow a two-state process.