Ad A.G.M. Benders

Altered Ca2+ responses in muscles with combined mitochondrial and cytosolic creatine kinase deficiencies

We have blocked creatine kinase (CK)-mediated phosphocreatine (PCr) -->/<-- ATP transphosphorylation in skeletal muscle by combining targeted mutations in the genes encoding mitochondrial and cytosolic CK in mice. Contrary to expectation, the PCr level was only marginally affected, but the compound was rendered metabolically inert. Mutant muscles in vivo showed significantly impaired tetanic force output, increased relaxation times, altered mitochondrial volume and location, and conspicuous tubular aggregates of sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes, as seen in myopathies with electrolyte disturbances. In depolarized myotubes cultured in vitro, CK absence influenced both the release and sequestration of Ca2+. Our data point to a direct link between the CK-PCr system and Ca2+-flux regulation during the excitation and relaxation phases of muscle contraction.

CYTOARCHITECTURAL AND METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS IN MUSCLES WITH MITOCHONDRIAL AND CYTOSOLIC CREATINE KINASE DEFICIENCIES

We have blocked creatine kinase (CK) mediated phosphocreatine (PCr) ⇄ ATP transphosphorylation in mitochondria and cytosol of skeletal muscle by knocking out the genes for the mitochondrial (ScCKmit) and the cytosolic (M-CK) CK isoforms in mice. Animals which carry single or double mutations, if kept and tested under standard laboratory conditions, have surprisingly mild changes in muscle physiology. Strenuous ex vivo conditions were necessary to reveal that MM-CK absence in single and double mutants leads to a partial loss of tetanic force output. Single ScCKmit deficiency has no noticeable effects but in combination the mutations cause slowing of the relaxation rate. Importantly, our studies revealed that there is metabolic and cytoarchitectural adaptation to CK defects in energy metabolism. The effects involve mutation type-dependent alterations in the levels of AMP, IMP, glycogen and phosphomonoesters, changes in activity of metabolic enzymes like AMP-deaminase, alterations in mitochondrial volume and contractile protein (MHC isoform) profiles, and a hyperproliferation of the terminal cysternae of the SR (in tubular aggregates). This suggests that there is a compensatory resiliency of loss-of-function and redirection of flux distributions in the metabolic network for cellular energy in our mutants.

Myotonic dystrophy protein kinase is involved in the modulation of the Ca2+ homeostasis in skeletal muscle cells.

Myotonic dystrophy (DM), the most prevalent muscular disorder in adults, is caused by (CTG)n-repeat expansion in a gene encoding a protein kinase (DM protein kinase; DMPK) and involves changes in cytoarchitecture and ion homeostasis. To obtain clues to the normal biological role of DMPK in cellular ion homeostasis, we have compared the resting [Ca2+]i, the amplitude and shape of depolarization-induced Ca2+ transients, and the content of ATP-driven ion pumps in cultured skeletal muscle cells of wild-type and DMPK[-/-] knockout mice. In vitro-differentiated DMPK[-/-] myotubes exhibit a higher resting [Ca2+]i than do wild-type myotubes because of an altered open probability of voltage-dependent l-type Ca2+ and Na+ channels. The mutant myotubes exhibit smaller and slower Ca2+ responses upon triggering by acetylcholine or high external K+. In addition, we observed that these Ca2+ transients partially result from an influx of extracellular Ca2+ through the l-type Ca2+ channel. Neither the content nor the activity of Na+/K+ ATPase and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase are affected by DMPK absence. In conclusion, our data suggest that DMPK is involved in modulating the initial events of excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle.

Ca2+ homeostasis in Brody's disease. A study in skeletal muscle and cultured muscle cells and the effects of dantrolene an verapamil.

Brodys disease, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+)-dependent Mg(2+)-ATPase (Ca(2+)-ATPase) deficiency, is a rare inherited disorder of skeletal muscle function. Pseudo-myotonia is the most important clinical feature. SR Ca(2+)-ATPase and Ca2+ homeostasis are examined in m. quadriceps and/or cultured muscle cells of controls and 10 patients suffering from Brodys disease. In both m. quadriceps and cultured muscle cells of patients, the SR Ca(2+)-ATPase activity is decreased by approximately 50%. However, the concentration of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase and SERCA1 are normal. SERCA1 accounts for 83 and 100% of total SR Ca(2+)-ATPase in m. quadriceps and cultured muscle cells, respectively. This implies a reduction of the molecular activity of SERCA1 in Brodys disease. The cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) at rest and the increase of [Ca2+]i after addition of acetylcholine are the same in cultured muscle cells of controls and patients. The half-life of the maximal response, however, is raised three times in the pathological muscle cells. Addition of dantrolene or verapamil after the maximal response accelerates the restoration of the [Ca2+]i in these muscle cells. The differences in Ca2+ handling disappear by administration of dantrolene or verapamil concomitantly with acetylcholine. The reduced Ca2+ re-uptake from the cytosol presumably due to structural modification(s) of SERCA1 may explain the pseudo-myotonia in Brodys disease. Single cell measurements suggest a beneficial effect of dantrolene or verapamil in treating patients suffering from Brodys disease.

The calcium homeostasis and the membrane potential of cultured muscle cells from patients with myotonic dystrophy.

Using the fluorescence indicator, quin2, we compared the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) of cultured myotubes obtained from control subjects and myotonic dystrophy (MyD) patients. In Ca2(+)-free buffer the [Ca2+]i of the cultured MyD muscle cells was not significantly different from that of the control cells. In the presence of 1 mM external Ca2+ the cultured MyD muscle cells showed a significantly higher [Ca2+]i, which was due to the influx of Ca2+ through voltage-operated nifedipine-sensitive Ca2+ channels. In the presence of external Ca2+, MyD myotubes did not respond to acetylcholine, whereas control myotubes showed a transient increase in [Ca2+]i after addition of acetylcholine. This increase was inhibited by the addition of nifedipine. The differences in Ca2(+)-homeostasis between cultured MyD muscle cells and control cells were not due to differences in the resting membrane potential or the inability of the MyD cells to depolarize as a response to acetylcholine. Therefore, cultured MyD muscle cells exhibit altered nifedipine-sensitive voltage-operated channels which are active under conditions in which they are normally present in the inactive state, and which are unable to respond to depolarization caused by acetylcholine.

The biochemical and structural maturation of human skeletal muscle cells in culture: the effect of the serum substitute Ultroser G.

On the basis of the percentage creatine kinase-MM, human skeletal muscle cells cultured on growth and differentiation media containing the serum substitute Ultroser G reach a significantly higher maturation grade after 7 days of differentiation than cells cultured on serum-containing media. They also remain viable for longer periods. The myotubes are much longer, their nuclei are often localized in rows on the periphery, and they show cross-striation more frequently. The activities of creatine kinase, citrate synthase, cytochrome c oxidase, AMP deaminase, and phosphorylase are significantly higher. Extending the differentiation period to 3 weeks increases the maturation grade of the cultures and the activities of all the enzymes mentioned before, except phosphorylase. A correlation exists between the enzyme activities and the maturation grade of the muscle cells. The content of fatty acid-binding protein also increases significantly with the maturation grade in contrast to the palmitate oxidation rate. The AMP deaminase and creatine kinase activity and the percentage MM-type remain lower in cultured cells than in adult muscle and the hexokinase activity remains higher, but the other enzyme activities become comparable after 20 days of differentiation. The myotubes, derived from Ultroser G-containing culture media, show spontaneous contractions after 12 days and cross-striation after 20 days when immunostained for the M-subunit of creatine kinase. These cells possess clusters of acetylcholine receptors, but aggregation of desmin at the site of the clusters was never detectable. The possibility of cultivating muscle cells with a predictable maturation grade allows the study of muscle development and muscular diseases caused by differentiation defects or by deficiency of a maturation-dependent (iso)enzyme.

COPPER TOXICITY IN CULTURED HUMAN SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS : THE INVOLVEMENT OF NA+/K+-ATPASE AND THE NA+/CA2+-EXCHANGER

Copper (Cu2+) intoxication has been shown to induce pathological changes in various tissues. The mechanism underlying Cu2+ toxicity is still unclear. It has been suggested that the Na+/K+-ATPase and/or a change of the membrane permeability may be involved. In this study we examined the effects of Cu2+ on the Na+ and Ca2+ homeostasis of cultured human skeletal muscle cells using the ion-selective fluorescent probes Na+-binding benzofuran isophtalate (SBFI) and Fura-2, respectively. In addition, we measured the effect of Cu2+ on the Na+/K+-ATPase activity. Cu2+ and ouabain increase the cytoplasmic free Na+ concentration ([Na+]i). Subsequent addition of Cu2+ after ouabain does not affect the rate of [Na+]i increase. Cu2+ inhibits the Na+/K+-ATPase activity with an IC50 of 51 μM. The cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) remains unaffected for more than 10 min after the administration of Cu2+. Thereafter, [Ca2+]i increases as a result of the Na+/Ca2+-exchanger operating in the reversed mode. The effects of Cu2+ on the Na+ homeostasis are reversed by the reducing and chelating agent dithiothreitol and the heavy metal chelator N,N,N′,N′,-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN). In conclusion, SBFI is a good tool to examine Na+ homeostasis in cultured human skeletal muscle cells. Under the experimental conditions used, Cu2+ does not modify the general membrane permeability, but inhibits the Na+/K+-pump leading to an increase of [Na+]i. As a consequence the operation mode of the Na+/Ca2+-exchanger reverses and [Ca2+]i rises.

Adenosine triphosphatases during maturation of cultured human skeletal muscle cells and in adult human muscle

Na+/K(+)-ATPase, Mg(2+)-ATPase and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+)-ATPase are examined in cultured human skeletal muscle cells of different maturation grade and in human skeletal muscle. Na+/K(+)-ATPase is investigated by measuring ouabain binding and the activities of Na+/K(+)-ATPase and K(+)-dependent 3-O-methylfluorescein phosphatase (3-O-MFPase). SR Ca(2+)-ATPase is examined by ELISA, Ca(2+)-dependent phosphorylation and its activities on ATP and 3-O-methylfluorescein phosphate. Na+/K(+)-ATPase and SR Ca(2+)-ATPase are localized by immunocytochemistry. The activities of Na+/K(+)-ATPase and SR Ca(2+)-ATPase show a good correlation with the other assayed parameters of these ion pumps. All ATPase parameters investigated increase with the maturation grade of the cultured muscle cells. The number of ouabain-binding sites and the activities of Na+/K(+)-ATPase and K(+)-dependent 3-O-MFPase are significantly higher in cultured muscle cells than in muscle. The Mg(2+)-ATPase activity, the content of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase and the activities of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase and Ca(2+)-dependent 3-O-MFPase remain significantly lower in cultured cells than in muscle. The ouabain-binding constant and the molecular activities of Na+/K(+)-ATPase and SR Ca(2+)-ATPase are equal in muscle and cultured cells. During ageing of human muscle the activity as well as the concentration of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase decrease. Thus the changes of the activities of the ATPases are caused by variations of the number of their molecules. Na+/K(+)-ATPase is localized in the periphery of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibers and at the sarcomeric I-band. SR Ca(2+)-ATPase is predominantly confined to the I-band, whereas fast-twitch fibers are much more immunoreactive than slow-twitch fibers. The presence of cross-striation for Na+/K(+)-ATPase and SR Ca(2+)-ATPase in highly matured cultured muscle cells indicate the development and subcellular organization of a transverse tubular system and SR, respectively, which resembles the in vivo situation.

Effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors on growth and differentiation of cultured rat skeletal muscle cells

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors have been associated with skeletal muscle myopathy, ranging from asymptomatic elevations of serum creatine kinase (CK) activity to rhabdomyolysis. In this study, we assessed the effects of addition of different concentrations of simvastatin and pravastatin on growth and differentiation of cultured primary rat skeletal muscle cells. Protein concentrations, CK activity and percentage CK-MM, which is a parameter for maturation, were determined. Effects were generally stronger if inhibitors were added to both growth and differentiation medium rather than only to differentiation medium. Addition of 25 microM pravastatin caused only a decrease of CK activity. Addition of 1-5 microM simvastatin resulted in a decrease of protein concentration, CK activity and percentage CK-MM, whereas 25 microM simvastatin resulted in cell death. Addition of mevalonic acid or cholesterol could not prevent the effects of 1 microM simvastatin. In addition, 1 microM simvastatin did not influence the cholesterol and phospholipid content of the cells. Superfusion of cultured cells with simvastatin concentrations of 10 microM and higher caused a transient increase of the cytoplasmic calcium concentration followed by an apparent second rise and cell puncture. The results indicate that HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors may affect skeletal muscle cell regeneration in vivo by a direct toxic effect on growth and differentiation.

Effects of growth medium, electrical stimulation and paralysis on various enzyme activities in cultured rat muscle cells. Comparison with activities in rat muscles in vivo.

1. Replacement of fetal calf serum and chicken embryo extract by Ultroser G and rat brain extract during the proliferation phase resulted in a higher maturation grade of cultured rat muscle cells after 7 days of differentiation, on base of the percentage of the muscle specific isoenzyme of creatine kinase (CK-MM). 2. Furthermore, the activities of creatine kinase, citrate synthase, cytochrome c oxidase and hexokinase were significantly higher. 3. Compared to the enzyme activities in m. quadriceps of 10 day-old rat and m. quadriceps, m. soleus and m. extensor digitorum longus of young adult rats, the metabolic capacity of cultured myotubes most closely resembles that of the first muscle. 4. Paralysis with tetrodotoxin caused a slight decrease of the creatine kinase activity and the percentage of CK-MM of cultured myotubes and an increase of the activities of hexokinase, phosphorylase and AMP deaminase. 5. Electrical stimulation performed at different frequencies and time periods had no effect on the enzyme activities of cultured rat muscle cells. 6. Only the AMP deaminase activity was decreased after intense electrical stimulation.