Adega Gonzalo

Predator recognition of native but not invasive turtle predators by naïve anuran tadpoles.

The impact of alien predators on prey populations is well known by conservation biologists, but little attention has been paid to the negative effects that the introduction of exotic predators may have on native predators through competition for food. In the Iberian Peninsula, the red-eared slider, Trachemys scripta elegans, and other exotic freshwater turtles have been introduced, competing and displacing the native endangered terrapins (the European pond turtle, Emys orbicularis, and the Spanish terrapin, Mauremys leprosa). Although the nature of competitive interactions remains unclear, direct competition for food is likely to occur. Both native and invasive freshwater turtles are common predators of amphibian tadpoles. Naive amphibian tadpoles are known to recognize and respond to local predators with no prior experience, but tadpoles might not recognize new predatory species, since they have not shared a long evolutionary history with them. We examined the ability of four species of Iberian anuran tadpoles to recognize and respond to chemical cues from invasive and native freshwater predatory turtles. Three of the four tadpole species tested reduced their swimming activity when cues from native turtles were present in water, but not when cues belonged to exotic turtles. This inability of tadpole prey to respond innately to chemicals from introduced predatory turtles might be one of the causes that explains the displacement of native populations of Iberian terrapins by invasive exotic turtles, and may help clarify why alien predators sometimes prosper better in new habitats than locally adapted predators.

Iberian green frog tadpoles may learn to recognize novel predators from chemical alarm cues of conspecifics

Many antipredator adaptations are induced by the preys ability to recognize chemical cues from predators and to act according to the threat level posed by that predator. However, predator recognition often requires learning by prey individuals. We tested the ability of Iberian green frog, Rana perezi, tadpoles to assess the magnitude of predation risk and adjust their behaviour by using perceived cues from a predatory snake, when this stimulus was found alone or associated with chemical alarm cues from conspecific tadpoles. Tadpoles exposed to alarm cues and the predatory snake scent together reduced their movement rates to a greater extent than when the snake scent was found alone, and reduced movement even more in the subsequent exposure to the predator snake scent alone. We also tested whether tadpoles were able to associate novel chemical cues (i.e. from an exotic nonpredatory fish) with predation risk after a simultaneous exposure with conspecific alarm cues. Tadpoles exposed to nonpredatory fish cues and alarm cues together reduced their activity levels, and reduced activity in the subsequent exposure to the fish cue alone, in a similar way as they reduced movement in the presence of predatory snake cues. Therefore, tadpoles learnt to perceive the fish cues as risky when these were previously associated with alarm cues. Predator recognition learning ability may be particularly advantageous for organisms whose environment may have a wide range of types of predators, even new exotic introduced species of predators that can affect the survival of prey.

Risk level of chemical cues determines retention of recognition of new predators in Iberian green frog tadpoles

In aquatic environments, many prey rely on chemosensory information from injured (alarm cues) or stressed conspecifics (disturbance cues) to assess predation risk. Alarm cues are considered as a sign of higher risk than disturbance cues. These cues could be used by prey to learn potential new predators. In this study, we tested whether Iberian green frog tadpoles (Pelophylax perezi) exhibited antipredator responses to alarm and disturbance cues of conspecifics and whether tadpoles could associate new predators with alarm or disturbance cues. Tadpoles reduced their activity in the presence of disturbance cues, but only weakly when compared with their response to alarm cues. Also, tadpoles learned to recognize new predators from association with alarm or disturbance cues. However, the period of retention of the learned association was shorter for disturbance than alarm cues. Our results indicate that tadpoles are able to modify their antipredatory behavior according to (1) the degree of risk implied by the experimental cues (2) their previous experience of chemical cues of the predator.

Social aggregation behaviour in the North African amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni

Abstract The ecology and behaviour of Amphisbaenians is poorly known due to their fossorial habits. However, amphisbaenians are often found under rocks where they thermoregulate, and probably engage in social interactions. We describe aggregations under rocks in a North African population of the little studied amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni. These observations could be used to make initial inferences about the social behaviour of this amphisbaenian. Results showed that amphisbaenians were sometimes found in pairs under the same rock. However, these aggregations were not random. Adult males were only found together with adult females, but we did not find pairs of adult males or adult females. This might suggest that there is intra-sexual intolerance, and that adult individuals of the same sex do not occupy the same rock space. Pairs of adults were more frequently found in spring than in autumn, coinciding with the mating season. Also, juvenile individuals were often found together with an adult, but juveniles tended to be more often with an adult female than with an adult male. This might indicate that juveniles are allowed to remain with their parents until they are older, which might enhance offspring fitness by providing access to high-quality habitats.

Sexual Dimorphism in the North African Amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni

Abstract Sexual dimorphism in size or shape is common in many reptile species. Amphisbaenians are morphologically specialized for a fossorial life, which might constrain the evolution of sexual dimorphism. This might explain why some amphisbaenian species, but not others, show some type of sexual dimorphism. To understand the differential occurrence of sexual dimorphism in amphisbaenians, studies on a wide number of species belonging to different families and inhabiting different ecological conditions are needed. We measured several morphological variables in a population of the amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni, a representative of the little-studied family Trogonophidae from North Africa. Results show that males and females have similar body size; but for individuals of similar size, males are heavier, have longer tails, and have larger heads than do females. These differences might be explained by sexual selection, if males with larger heads had advantages in intrasexual contests, or by sexual diet differences. However, most ecological and behavioral aspects of this and other amphisbaenian species remain poorly known, thereby leaving unresolved which selective pressures are responsible for the sexual dimorphism that was evident in this species.

Detection and Discrimination of Conspecific Scents by the Anguid Slow-Worm Anguis fragilis

We tested the ability of male slow-worms, Anguis fragilis, a limbless anguid lizard with secretive, semifossorial habits, to detect chemical associated with conspecifics by using a T-maze in the laboratory. Male slow-worms discriminated conspecific male and female scent deposits. Males selected the arm with female scent, suggesting that scent deposits may be used to locate potential mates. Also, male slow-worms did not avoid the chemicals of other males, suggesting that they are not territorial. However, males discriminated their own scent from those of other males, and spent more time exploring the arm with other male scent, which suggests that scent marks may bear information that could be used in future intrasexual social contexts. We conclude that discrimination of conspecifics based on scents may be more widespread than previously expected among lizards inhabiting visually restricted environments.

STRUCTURE OF A POPULATION OF THE AMPHISBAENIAN TROGONOPHIS WIEGMANNI IN NORTH AFRICA

Abstract Amphisbaenians are a group of reptiles specialized for a fossorial life, which makes the study of their peculiar biological and ecological adaptations difficult. The population biology of amphisbaenians is almost unknown. We described the seasonal variation in the size, age, and sex structure of a population of the amphisbaenian Trogonophis wiegmanni from the Chafarinas Islands, in North Africa. We specifically described body size (length and weight), frequency distribution of newborn and older juvenile individuals and adults, sex ratio of adults (which did not differ from a 1∶1 ratio), and proportion of juveniles and newborn individuals in the population. The results indicated that T. wiegmanni is a viviparous species that delays reproduction until at least 2.5 yr, that almost half of adult females do not reproduce every year, and that females have a very small brood size (i.e., reproductive females give birth to a single juvenile at the beginning of autumn). We also used our data to infer growth and survival of juveniles, suggesting that mortality of newborn individuals is low. There are many aspects of the population biology of amphisbaenians that remain unknown and further studies are clearly needed.

Conspecific alarm cues, but not predator cues alone, determine antipredator behavior of larval southern marbled newts, Triturus pygmaeus

Predation imposes selection on the ability of prey to recognize and respond to potential threats. Many prey species detect predators via chemoreception, particularly in aquatic environments. Also, chemical cues from injured prey are often perceived as an indication of predation risk. However, because antipredatory behavior can be costly, prey responses should depend on the current level of risk that each predator poses, which may depend on the type of chemical cues detected. We exposed larval newts, Triturus pygmaeus, to chemical cues from predator larval beetles or to alarm cues from conspecific larval newts and examined the behavioral changes of larval newts. Results showed that larval newts reduced activity levels when conspecific alarm cues were present but not when the predator cues alone were present. These results might suggest that larval newts are unable to recognize predator chemicals. To avoid costs of unnecessary antipredatory behaviors, larval newts may benefit by avoiding only predators that represent a current high level of threat, showing only antipredatory responses when they detect conspecific alarm cues indicating that an actual predatory attack has occurred.

Avoidance responses to scents of snakes that pose different risks of predation by adult natterjack toads, Bufo calamita

Many antipredator behaviors are mediated by the ability of prey to recognize chemical cues from predators. Adult amphibians mainly use vision to detect predators, but the ability to detect chemicals of predators and conspecifics could be advantageous, especially when assessing safety of potential refuges where the use of visual cues is limited. We analyzed in the laboratory whether refuge choice by adult natterjack toads (Bufo calamita Laurenti, 1768) was influenced by the presence in the refuge of chemical cues from conspecifics or from two different snake predators (Natrix maura (L., 1758) and Natrix natrix (L., 1758)). Natterjack toads avoided refuges scented by snakes and spent less time in refuges with snake scent than in refuges with conspecific scent. Toads also seemed to have different hiding behaviors depending on the snake species that they found. We concluded that adult natterjack toads were able to recognize and avoid chemical cues of dangerous snakes, but it was not clear whether toads discri...

Adaptive Forgetting in Iberian Green Frog Tadpoles (Pelophylax perezi): Learned Irrelevance and Latent Inhibition May Avoid Predator Misidentification

Predator recognition often requires learning by prey individuals. Iberian green frog tadpoles (Pelophylax perezi) have the ability to learn to recognize new potential predators when their chemical cues are found paired with conspecific alarm cues. However, a random pairing of alarm cues and chemical stimuli of a nonpredator might later induce costly antipredator responses to nondangerous species. Here, we studied the potential existence in this frog species of two phenomena (learned irrelevance and latent inhibition) that could help tadpoles to avoid these nonadaptive responses to chemical cues of nonpredator species. Our results showed that, when tadpoles experienced a random pattern of presence of alarm cues alone or predator cues alone over the 4 days before or after the simultaneous detection of these two cues paired, no learned association was formed. These results showed the existence of an effect of learned irrelevance on learning in Iberian green frog tadpoles. Also, tadpoles clearly inhibited the formation of a learning association between predator and alarm cues after a 4-day period during which they had been exposed to the predator cues alone. This result showed the existence of an effect of latent inhibition on learning about cues related to increased predation risk. Thus, both learned irrelevance and latent inhibition, rather than being considered to be failed predator recognition, can rather be seen as adaptive ways for dealing with conflicting information and as strategies to avoid learning irrelevant information and costly antipredatory responses to nonpredatory stimuli.