Adi Utarini

Doctor–patient communication in a Southeast Asian setting: the conflict between ideal and reality

Doctor–patient communication has been extensively studied in non-Western contexts and in relation to patients’ cultural and education backgrounds. This study explores the perceived ideal communication style for doctor–patient consultations and the reality of actual practice in a Southeast Asian context. We conducted the study in a teaching hospital in Indonesia, using a qualitative and a quantitative design. In-depth interviews were conducted with ten internal medicine specialists, ten internal medicine residents, 16 patients in two groups based on education level and ten most senior medical students. The contributions of doctors and patients to the communication during consultations were observed and rated quantitatively by thirty internal medicine residents, 393 patients with different educational backgrounds and ten senior medical students. The ‘informed and shared decision making’ is the central observation in this quantitative study. The results of the interviews showed that Southeast Asian stakeholders are in favor of a partnership style of communication and revealed barriers to achieving this: doctors and patients are not prepared for a participatory style and high patient load due to an inefficient health care system does not allow sufficient time for this type of communication. The results of the quantitative study showed a sharp contrast between observed and ideal communication styles. A paternalistic style seems to prevail, irrespective of patients’ educational background. We found a sharp conflict between ideal and reality concerning doctor–patient communication in a Southeast Asian context. Further studies should examine ways to change the prevailing communication style in the desired direction.

Rapid assessment procedures of malaria in low endemic countries: community perceptions in Jepara district, Indonesia

Most studies on community perceptions toward malaria have been undertaken in high-endemic countries, and studies from low-endemic countries have only recently been published. Similar information is also needed for hypoendemic countries such as Indonesia, to cope with the persistence of foci-endemic malaria in these regions. An applied qualitative method, Rapid Assessment Procedures, was employed during a 3-month intensive data collection period in Jepara district, Central Java province. Data were retrieved from 38 free-listings, 28 in-depth interviews, seven focus group discussions and unstructured observation. Qualitative thematic content analysis was applied. In this community, malaria (known as katisen or panas tis) was considered a common but minor illness. Insufficient understanding of malaria signs and symptoms in the subvillages likely leads to delay in illness recognition and treatment; not surprisingly self-treatment is common and the dosage most likely below the recommended dose. The health center was used but when it did not work, most people would shift back to traditional services due to cost considerations. Low understanding and acceptance of the causal link between the mosquito and malaria, likely leading to poor comprehension of preventive activities, as well as confusion of malaria with dengue fever, were identified. In conclusion, this study highlights a consistent gap between the common understanding and the biomedical description of malaria. If case management continues to be the main strategy in malaria control program, the emic perspective of the people must be well-integrated into the program. Likewise, interventions to improve home-treatment should also be developed.

The financial burden of HIV care, including antiretroviral therapy, on patients in three sites in Indonesia

This paper assesses the extent of the financial burden due to out-of-pocket payments for health care incurred by people living with HIV (PLHIV) and the effect of this burden on their financial capacity. Data were collected in a cross-sectional survey of 353 PLHIV from three cities in Indonesia (Jakarta, Jogjakarta and Merauke). Respondents in Jakarta were sampled from one hospital and one non-governmental organization working with PLHIV. In Jogjakarta and Merauke, all HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) who came to selected hospitals during the interview period were asked to participate in the survey. The survey collected data on the frequency and extent of payments for HIV-related care, with answers cross-checked against medical records. Results show that PLHIV had different burdens of payments in the different geographical areas. On average, respondents in Jogjakarta spent 68%, and PLHIV on ART in Jakarta spent 96%, of monthly expenditure for HIV-related care, indicating a substantial financial burden for many ART patients. These patients depended on several sources of finance to cover the costs of their care, with donations from their immediate family being the most common method, selling assets and payments from personal income being the second most common method in Jakarta and Jogjakarta, respectively. Most PLHIV in these two areas did not have insurance. In Merauke, there were little observed out-of-pocket payments because the government covers medical costs via the local budget and health insurance for the poor. The results of this study confirm previous findings that providing subsidized ART drugs alone does not ensure financial accessibility to HIV care. Thus, the government of Indonesia at central and local levels should consider covering HIV care additional to providing antiretroviral drugs free of charge. Social health insurance should also be encouraged.

Delayed treatment of tuberculosis patients in rural areas of Yogyakarta province, Indonesia

BackgroundIn year 2000, the entire population in Indonesia was 201 million and 57.6 percent of that was living in rural areas. This paper reports analyses that address to what extent the rural structure influence the way TB patients seek care prior to diagnosis by a DOTS facility.MethodsWe documented healthcare utilization pattern of smear positive TB patients prior to diagnosis and treatment by DOTS services (health centre, chest clinic, public and private hospital) in Yogyakarta province. We calculated the delay in treatment as the number of weeks between the onset of symptoms and the start of DOTS treatment. Statistical analysis was carried out with Epi Info version 3.3 (October 5, 2004).ResultsThe only factor which was significantly associated with total delay was urban-rural setting (p = < 0.0001). The median total delay for TB patients in urban districts was 8 (1st Quartile = 4; 3rd Quartile = 12) weeks compared to 12 (1st Quartile = 7; 3rd Quartile = 23) weeks for patients in rural districts. Multivariate analysis suggested no confounding between individual factors and urban-rural setting remained as the main factor for total delay (p = < 0.0001). Primary health centre was the first choice provider for most (38.7%) of these TB patients. Urban-rural setting was also the only factor which was significantly associated with choice of first provider (p = 0.03).ConclusionImproving access to DOTS services in rural areas is an area of vital importance in aiming to make progress toward achieving TB control targets in Indonesia.

Private practitioners and tuberculosis case detection in Jogjakarta, Indonesia: actual role and potential

Background  Indonesia has a high tuberculosis (TB) prevalence and a large private health sector.

High caseload of childhood tuberculosis in hospitals on Java Island, Indonesia: a cross sectional study.

BackgroundChildhood tuberculosis (TB) has been neglected in the fight against TB. Despite implementation of Directly Observed Treatment Shortcourse (DOTS) program in public and private hospitals in Indonesia since 2000, the burden of childhood TB in hospitals was largely unknown. The goals of this study were to document the caseload and types of childhood TB in the 0-4 and 5-14 year age groups diagnosed in DOTS hospitals on Java Island, Indonesia.MethodsCross-sectional study of TB cases recorded in inpatient and outpatient registers of 32 hospitals. Cases were analyzed by hospital characteristics, age groups, and types of TB. The number of cases reported in the outpatient unit was compared with that recorded in the TB register.ResultsOf 5,877 TB cases in the inpatient unit and 15,694 in the outpatient unit, 11% (648) and 27% (4,173) respectively were children. Most of the childhood TB cases were under five years old (56% and 53% in the inpatient and outpatient clinics respectively). The proportion of smear positive TB was twice as high in the inpatient compared to the outpatient units (15.6% vs 8.1%). Extra-pulmonary TB accounted for 15% and 6% of TB cases in inpatient and outpatient clinics respectively. Among children recorded in hospitals only 1.6% were reported to the National TB Program.ConclusionIn response to the high caseload and gross under-reporting of childhood TB cases, the National TB Program should give higher priority for childhood TB case management in designated DOTS hospitals. In addition, an international guidance on childhood TB recording and reporting and improved diagnostics and standardized classification is required

Contact Investigation of Children Exposed to Tuberculosis in South East Asia: A Systematic Review

Background. Screening of children who are household contacts of tuberculosis (TB) cases is universally recommended but rarely implemented in TB endemic setting. This paper aims to summarise published data of the prevalence of TB infection and disease among child contacts in South East Asia. Methods. Search strategies were developed to identify all published studies from South East Asia of household contact investigation that included children (0–15 years). Results. Eleven studies were eligible for review. There was heterogeneity across the studies. TB infection was common among child contacts under 15 years of age (24.4–69.2%) and was higher than the prevalence of TB disease, which varied from 3.3% to 5.5%. Conclusion. TB infection is common among children that are household contacts of TB cases in South East Asia. Novel approaches to child contact screening and management that improve implementation in South East Asia need to be further evaluated.

Diagnostic delay amongst tuberculosis patients in Jogjakarta Province, Indonesia is related to the quality of services in DOTS facilities

Objectives  To understand determinants of care‐seeking patterns and diagnostic delay amongst tuberculosis (TB) patients diagnosed at direct observed treatment short course (DOTS) facilities in Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

Missed opportunity for standardized diagnosis and treatment among adult Tuberculosis patients in hospitals involved in Public-Private Mix for Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course strategy in Indonesia: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundThe engagement of hospitals in Public-Private Mix (PPM) for Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course (DOTS) strategy has increased rapidly internationally - including in Indonesia. In view of the rapid global scaling-up of hospital engagement, we aimed to estimate the proportion of outpatient adult Tuberculosis patients who received standardized diagnosis and treatment at outpatients units of hospitals involved in the PPM-DOTS strategy.MethodsA cross-sectional study using morbidity reports for outpatients, laboratory registers and Tuberculosis patient registers from 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2005. By quota sampling, 62 hospitals were selected. Post-stratification analysis was conducted to estimate the proportion of Tuberculosis cases receiving standardized management according to the DOTS strategy.ResultNineteen to 53% of Tuberculosis cases and 4-18% of sputum smear positive Tuberculosis cases in hospitals that participated in the PPM-DOTS strategy were not treated with standardized diagnosis and treatment as in DOTS.ConclusionThis study found that a substantial proportion of TB patients cared for at PPM-DOTS hospitals are not managed under the DOTS strategy. This represents a missed opportunity for standardized diagnoses and treatment. A combination of strong individual commitment of health professionals, organizational supports, leadership, and relevant policy in hospital and National Tuberculosis Programme may be required to strengthen DOTS implementation in hospitals.

The incremental cost-effectiveness of engaging private practitioners to refer tuberculosis suspects to DOTS services in Jogjakarta, Indonesia.

We aimed to evaluate the incremental cost-effectiveness of engaging private practitioners (PPs) to refer tuberculosis (TB) suspects to public health centers in Jogjakarta, Indonesia. Effectiveness was assessed for TB suspects notified between May 2004 and April 2005. Private practitioners referred 1,064 TB suspects, of which 57.5% failed to reach a health center. The smear-positive rate among patients reaching a health center was 61.8%. Two hundred eighty (280) out of a total of 1,306 (21.4%) new smear-positive cases were enrolled through the PPs strategy. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio per smear-positive case successfully treated for the PPs strategy was US