Adrian McDonald

PICABUE: a methodological framework for the development of indicators of sustainable development

SUMMARY Significant interest in the concept of sustainable development exists amongst scientists, planners, policy makers and the public, and considerable effort and expenditure is made or envisaged at local, national and international levels to promote a more sustainable society. Until ‘green accounting’ and similar systems are made available and are implemented, the sustainability indicator will be the most effective tool available for monitoring progress towards a more sustainable society. Sustainability indicators are already available but are characterized by a poor or absent theoretical underpinning. This paper addresses this problem by proposing a methodological framework that can be applied to the construction of indicators of sustainable development. In order to be consistent with widely accepted definitions of sustainable development, considerations relating to the measurement of quality of life and ecological integrity are central to the methodology. The methodological framework has relevance t...

Catchment microbial dynamics: the emergence of a research agenda:

Parallel policy developments driven in the USA by the Clean Water Act and in Europe by the Water Framework Directive have focused attention on the need for quantitative information on the fluxes of faecal indicator bacteria in catchment systems. Data are required on point and diffuse source loadings, fate and transport of these non-conservative parameters, on the land surface, within soil systems, in groundwater, streams, impoundments and nearshore waters. This new information is needed by regulators to inform Total Maximum Daily Load estimates in the USA and Programmes of Measures in Europe both designed to prevent impairment of water quality at locations where compliance is assessed against health-based standards for drinking, bathing or shellfish harvesting. In the UK, the majority of catchment-scale activity in this field has been undertaken by physical geographers although microbial flux analysis and modelling has received much less attention from the research and policy communities than, for example, the nutrient parameters. This paper charts the policy drivers now operative and assesses the evidence base to support current policy questions. Finally, gaps and priority research questions are identified.

Faecal indicator organism concentrations and catchment export coefficients in the UK.

Characterisation of faecal indicator organism (FIO) concentrations and export coefficients for catchments with particular combinations of land use and under specific climatic regimes is critical in developing models to predict daily loads and apportion sources of the microbial parameters used to regulate water quality. Accordingly, this paper presents a synthesis of FIO concentration and export coefficient data for the summer bathing season, with some comparative winter data, for 205 river/stream sampling points widely distributed across mainland UK. In terms of both geometric mean (GM) FIO concentrations and export coefficients (expressed as cfu km(-2) h(-1)), the results reveal (1) statistically significant elevations at high flow compared with base flow, with concentrations typically increasing by more than an order of magnitude and export coefficients by about two orders; (2) significantly higher values in summer than in winter under high-flow conditions; and (3) extremely wide variability between the catchments (e.g. four orders of magnitude range for GM faecal coliform concentrations), which closely reflects land use-with urban areas and improved pastures identified as key FIO sources. Generally, these two most polluting land uses are concentrated in lowland areas where runoff (m3 km(-2) h(-1)) is low compared with upland areas, which in the UK are dominated by rough grazing and forestry. Consequently, contrasts in export coefficients between land use types are less than for FIO concentrations. The GMs reported for most land use categories are based on 13 sites and exhibit quite narrow confidence intervals. They may therefore be applied with some confidence to other catchments in the UK and similar geographical regions elsewhere. Examples are presented to illustrate how the results can be used to estimate daily summer base- and high-flow FIO loads for catchments with different land use types, and to assess the likely effectiveness of certain strategies for reducing FIO pollutant loadings in areas with extensive areas of lowland improved pasture.

Discolouration of water by peat following induced drought and rainfall simulation

Abstract This paper examines the discolouration of water by dissolved organic matter under controlled conditions. Winter hill association (raw peat) is subjected to prolonged natural drying to induce a range of moisture deficits. This peat is then subjected to rainfall simulation. Throughflow colour relates to drought duration and near surface water loss and rewetting. Attention is paid to the role of pore spaces in colour generation and removal. The implications for moorland management and the long term pattern of water discolouration are considered.

Statistical modelling of water colour in the uplands: The Upper Midd catchment 1979–1987

The increasing colour of raw water from the uplands is a matter of concern to water managers. The colour record for the period 1979-1987 is examined for the catchment of Upper Nidderdale, North Yorkshire. The variation in colour shows a marked seasonality with peaks occurring during the autumn months. No long-term sustained increase in colour is found, although colour levels were high in 1980, 1985 and 1987. Colour is found to be highly correlated with iron and, more particularly, aluminium. There is no relationship between colour and turbidity which suggests that there is no direct link between colour levels and erosion on the catchments. Colour increases appear to relate to large soil moisture deficits in months immediately prior to the colour flush and to high soil moisture deficits in the previous year. Complementary relationships are found between monthly rainfall totals and colour. In the light of these findings, it is suggested that high colour is associated with water table lowering and aerobic decomposition of the upper organic peat layers.

Overland flow velocity and roughness properties in peatlands

Overland flow is an important component of peatland hydrology. Hydrological models of peatlands are being developed that require estimates of flow velocity and its controls. However, surprisingly little is known about overland flow velocities in peatlands. Some peatlands have also been drained using open ditches, and these need to be incorporated into flow models. This paper presents field data on the velocity of overland flow and drain flow in upland peatlands. The relationships between flow velocity, vegetation cover, slope, and water depth are explored. Sphagnum provided a significantly greater effective hydraulic roughness to overland flow than peatland grasses. In all cases, a significant break in process occurred for flows with water depths of around 1 cm so that there were two components of the roughness curve. This is consistent with partial submergence theory for very shallow flows where resistance increases with depth as the soil surface first becomes fully submerged. While each surface cover type should be considered separately, the results also suggest that a first-order estimate of Darcy-Weisbach roughness and mean velocity can be based on a single parameter for each surface cover. This paper presents an empirical overland flow velocity forecasting model that can be applied to peatlands. The model combines the partially submerged component for flows with water depths below 1 cm with the fully submerged component for flows with depths up to 5 cm, which are representative of the depths of flows that occur across peatlands.

Enteric bacterial concentrations in reservoir feeder streams: baseflow characteristics and response to hydrograph events

Abstract This paper reports on work carried out from June 1976 to May 1978 on feeder streams to Thruscross Reservoir. The study examined short term changes in total coliform and Escherichia coli concentrations during five diurnal phases and 11 hydrograph events. Statistical analysis of the results show that highly significant increases in enteric bacterial concentrations occurred in nine of the 11 hydrograph events examined. The results suggest that a flushing mechanism may operate in the transport of enteric bacteria into upland reservoirs.

Water Resources: Issues and Strategies

Part 1 Introduction: water the prime resource the creation of an issue. Part 2 The physical resource: water at a macro and a micro scale assessing the physical base. Part 3 The human resource: structure for management at the national and international level. Part 4 Water supply: scale of the problem structural approaches non-structural approaches. Part 5 Flooding control and management: physical appraisal of flooding types of response. Part 6 Water quality: a history of changing concerns microbiological parameters physio-chemical parameters of water quality. Part 7 Water as a power resource: tidal power the status of hydro power hydro-electric power potential hydro-electric resources and development. Part 8 River basin planning: the Tennessee Valley Authority the Volta river basin the Senegal river regional water authorities. Part 9 Issues and strategies. Part 10 Lessons for the future: integration appropriateness knowledge transfer water resource principles global principles principles in the developed world developing world principles.

Priority water research questions as determined by UK practitioners and policy makers

Several recent studies have emphasised the need for a more integrated process in which researchers, policy makers and practitioners interact to identify research priorities. This paper discusses such a process with respect to the UK water sector, detailing how questions were developed through inter-disciplinary collaboration using online questionnaires and a stakeholder workshop. The paper details the 94 key questions arising, and provides commentary on their scale and scope. Prioritization voting divided the nine research themes into three categories: (1) extreme events (primarily flooding), valuing freshwater services, and water supply, treatment and distribution [each >150/1109 votes]; (2) freshwater pollution and integrated catchment management [100-150 votes] and; (3) freshwater biodiversity, water industry governance, understanding and managing demand and communicating water research [50-100 votes]. The biggest demand was for research to improve understanding of intervention impacts in the water environment, while a need for improved understanding of basic processes was also clearly expressed, particularly with respect to impacts of pollution and aquatic ecosystems. Questions that addressed aspects of appraisal, particularly incorporation of ecological service values into decision making, were also strongly represented. The findings revealed that sustainability has entered the lexicon of the UK water sector, but much remains to be done to embed the concept operationally, with key sustainability issues such as resilience and interaction with related key sectors, such as energy and agriculture, relatively poorly addressed. However, the exercise also revealed that a necessary condition for sustainable development, effective communication between scientists, practitioners and policy makers, already appears to be relatively well established in the UK water sector.

Input of fecal coliform bacteria to an upland stream channel in the Yorkshire Dales

The input of fecal coliform bacteria to the River Skell stream from a small, approximately 0.5 ha, instrumented research site on Pateley Moor in the Yorkshire Dales was investigated. Bacterial concentrations were determined for a total of 433 water samples collected between October and December 1984 from 31 stream bank sites representing three types of near-surface water flow: matrix through flow, nonmatrix through flow, and overland flow. Bacterial concentrations in matrix through flow were found to be very low, but much higher input rates were found in both nonmatrix through flow and overland flow. Overland flow sites were the most important group for the input of bacteria to the channel, both between and during storm events. The rate of fecal coliform input was found to increase during storm events, and there was a strong, positive correlation between bacterial input rate and stream stage height.