Adriano R. Viana

Seismic features diagnostic of contourite drifts

Abstract The sedimentary construction of oceanic margins is most often carried out by the combined action of gravitational processes and processes related to bottom (contour) currents. One of the major difficulties encountered in the interpretation of seismic profiles crossing such margins is the differentiation of these two types of deposit, especially where they display very complicated imbricated geometries. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to derive criteria for the recognition of contourite vs. turbidite deposits, based on the analysis of many seismic profiles from both published and unpublished sources. The following features are the most diagnostic for the recognition of contourite drifts. At the scale of the basin, four different drift types can be distinguished according to the morphostructural context, their general morphology and the hydrodynamic conditions. These are: contourite-sheeted drifts (including abyssal sheets and slope-plastered sheets), elongate-mounded drifts (detached and separated types), channel-related drifts (including lateral and axial patch drifts and downstream contourite fans), and confined drifts trapped in small, tectonically active basins. At the scale of the drift, three features provide the best diagnostic criteria for recognising contourite deposits on seismic profiles: major discontinuities that can be traced across the whole drift and represent time lines corresponding to hydrological events, lenticular, convex-upward depositional units with a variable geometry, and a specific style of progradation–aggradation of these units that is influenced by interaction of the bottom current with Coriolis force and with the morphology. At the scale of depositional units, the seismofacies show a wide variety of reflector characteristics, many of which are very similar to those observed in turbidite series. Distinction between sediment wave seismofacies deposited by turbidity currents and bottom currents still remains ambiguous.

Bottom currents, contourites and deep-sea sediment drifts: current state-of-the-art

Abstract This paper provides both an introduction to and summary for the Atlas of Contourite Systems that has been compiled as part of the International Geological Correlation Project - IGCP 432. Following the seminal works of George Wust on the physical oceanography of bottom currents, and Charley Hollister on contourite sediments, a series of significant advances have been made over the past few decades. While accepting that ideas and terms must remain flexible as our knowledge base continues to increase, we present a consensus view on terminology and definitions of bottom currents, contourites and drifts. Both thermohaline and wind-driven circulation, influenced by Coriolis Force and molded by topography, contribute to the oceanic system of bottom currents. These semi-permanent currents show significant variability in time and space, marked by periodic benthic storm events in areas of high surface kinetic energy. Six different drift types are recognized in the ocean basins and margins at depths greater than about 300 m: (i) contourite sheet drifts; (ii) elongate mounded drifts; (iii) channel related drifts; (iv) confined drifts; (v) infill drifts; and (vi) modified drift-turbidite systems. In addition to this overall geometry, their chief seismic characteristics include: a uniform reflector pattern that reflects long-term stability, drift-wide erosional discontinuities caused by periodic changes in bottom current regime, and stacked broadly lenticular seismic depositional units showing oblique to downcurrent migration. At a smaller scale, a variety of seismic facies can be recognized that are here related to bottom current intensity. A model for seismic facies cyclicity (alternating transparent/reflector zones) is further elaborated, and linked to bottom current/climate change. Both erosional features and depositional bedforms are diagnostic of bottom current systems and velocities. Many different contourite facies are now known to exist, encompassing all compositional types. We propose here a Cl-5 notation for the standard contourite facies sequence, which can be interpreted in terms of fluctuation in bottom current velocity and/or sediment supply. Several proxies can be utilized to decode contourite successions in terms of current fluctuation. Gravel lag and shale chip contourites, as well as erosional discontinuities are indicative of still greater velocities. There are a small but growing number of land-based examples of fossil contourites, based on careful analysis using the recommended three-stage approach to interpretation. Debate still surrounds the recognition and interpretation of bottom current reworked turbidites.

Deep-water contourite systems: modern drifts and ancient series, seismic and sedimentary characteristics

Countourites are a widespread but poorly known group of sediments linked to the action of powerful bottom currents in deep water. Although we know they are especially common along continental margins and through oceanic gateways, they have been surrounded by contoversy since they were first recognized in the early 1960s. Where correctly recognized and decoded they can provide one of the keys to our better understanding of bottom water circulation and of the ocean–climate link. They are part of the spectrum of deposits that confronts the oil industry as exploration moves into progressively greater water depths. This memoir is an important outcome of the International Geological Correlation Project 432 on Bottom Currents, Contourites and Palaeocirculation . It includes 30 papers involving over 75 key scientists from around the world. Following an introductory state–of–the–art paper by the editors, there are 25 separate case studies on modern drifts and four on ancient contourite series. Each contribution highlights the specific geological and oceanographic setting, bathymetry, physiographic and stratigraphic context, seismic attributes and sedimentary characteristics of that drift. Case studies range from some of the well-documented North Atlantic drifts to those much less known from the Mediterrenean, from important syntheses of the Gulf of Cadiz and Vema Channel Gateway, to completely new data on South Atlantic, Pacific and Antartic margin systems. The four papers on ancient series from Japan, China and Cyprus serve to emphasise the complex nature and subtle characteristics of contourites, which make their identification a scientific challenge. This volume is dedicated to the memory of Charlie Hollister (1936–1999), one of the founding fathers and pioneers of countourite research.

HYDROLOGY, MORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE CAMPOS CONTINENTAL MARGIN, OFFSHORE BRAZIL

Abstract Slope sand deposits have accumulated from at least the Neogene to the Present on the southeastern Brazilian continental margin (Campos Basin area). This region shows sand accumulations concentrated on the upper portion and on the base of the continental slope with a middle to lower slope bypass zone. A synthesis of preliminary results, supported by recent cores, high-resolution geophysical surveys, geotechnical investigations and environmental research, is presented and permits a prelitrunary analysis of the sedimentological mechanisms operational in this area. These point toward a temporal and spatial multiscale set of phenomena responsible for sand deposits. At any sea-level stand these deposits are dependent on: (1) a suitable sediment source; (2) offshelf transport mechanisms; (3) a morphostructural and hydrodynamic context responsible for the deposition of these sands in the upper portion of continental slopes. The proposed scenario of depositional processes concerns: (1) a set of hydrological processes such as surface currents and counter-currents, waves, tides and eddies with sufficient energy to form submarine sand dune fields at the outer shelf; (2) the offshelf export of this sediment under a combined action of spillover, internal waves, eddies ‘seafloor polishing effect’ and gravity processes (turbidity currents); and (3) the slope sand deposits and their distribution controlled by the action of contour currents, mass movements and the morphological context, such as canyons, gullies or scarps.

Bottom-current-controlled sand deposits — a review of modern shallow- to deep-water environments

Abstract Different examples of modern marine-sand accumulations generated or strongly influenced by the action of bottom currents, are here presented. They are drawn from a variety of tectonic and morphological settings and grouped into three water-depth zones: deep-water (>2000 m), mid-water (300–2000 m), and outer-shelf/upper-slope (50–300 m). Deposits in the first two of these depth zones are normal contourites, according to their original definition (Heezen and Hollister, 1971) being those sediments that have been transported and deposited by contour currents in deep-water environments. Those deposited at shallower depths, under the influence of surficial geostrophic currents combined with other hydrodynamic factors (shelf currents induced by wind, tide and waves, gyres, internal waves, etc.), are more properly referred to as outer-shelf/upper-slope bottom-current sands (or shallow-water bottom-current sands). We have elaborated a facies model for each bathymetric zone. Deep-water sandy contourites are relatively rare, thin- and very thin-bedded, highly bioturbated and mainly of bioclastic composition. They are interbedded with muddy contourites and pelagites or, in some areas, with turbidites. In the latter case, thin bottom-current-reworked, sandy tops of turbidites provide a different and distinct facies. Mid-water sandy contourites are more common, ranging up to a metre in thickness, and may form extensive sandy sheets in a variety of slope, bank and channel settings. They are mainly of mixed siliciclastic—bioclastic composition, typically bioturbated, and associated with muddy/silty contourites in coarsening-up/fining-up complete or truncated sequences. Shallow-water bottom-current sands occur in particular outer-shelf/upper-slope settings, where they may develop relatively thick (1–20 m), laterally extensive sheets covered by fields of sandwaves, megaripples and ribbons. Internal structures may be preserved along with much bioturbation. Their composition varies from mainly siliciclastic to bioclastic, and they may be interbedded with both inner-shelf facies and slope hemipelagites. The principal factors that control the deposition of sandy contourites and shallow-water bottom-current sands are the hydrodynamic regime of the basin, the availability of coarse-grained (sandy) sediments and the physiographic context of the area swept by the currents. The greater the depth, the finer and rarer the bottom-current or sandy contourite deposits. Global sea-level and climatic changes and the time involved in the depositional history play an ultimate role in the development of important sand accumulations of this sort by controlling the ocean-circulation pattern and its long-term persistence. From the present analysis, we conclude that mid-depth sandy contourites are the most commonly found in modern environments, and that shallow-water bottom-current sands constitute the most significant potential oil reservoirs to be found in the geological record.

Fossil contourites: a critical review

Abstract Despite three decades of study, there is still great controversy over the recognition and interpretation of fossil contourites exposed in ancient series on land. In order to best examine this problem, we briefly review the evidence from modern systems, including the many examples of Cenozoic contourites that have been recovered from DSDP/ODP drilling on major drifts in the present-day oceans. The range of contourite facies described from both deep-water (>2000 m) and mid-water (300–2000 m) drifts are mostly fine-grained, bioturbated and homogeneous, often with a distinct bedding cyclicity, and with some coarser-grained sandy contourites developed under higher-energy bottom currents. There are also a number of current-controlled sediment bodies that have formed in outer shelf/upper slope settings (50–300 m) under the influence of counter currents, underflows and major surface currents. These are not considered contourites sensu stricto, but may be mistaken as such in ancient examples. The most commonly described fossil contourites in the literature have been interpreted by the authors concerned as bottom-current reworked turbidites. However, a critical review suggests that these are the facies most subject to misinterpretation and many of the sediments claimed as fossil contourites are almost certainly fine-grained turbidites, whereas others were more likely formed under outer shelf/upper slope current systems. There remain very few ancient examples that are more closely comparable to modern contourites; these include the Cretaceous Talme Yafe Formation in Israel, the Ordovician Jiuxi Drift in China, and parts of the Paleogene Lefkara Formation, Cyprus and the Neogene Misaki Formation in Japan. We present a set of possible criteria for the recognition of fossil contourites and bottom-current reworked turbidites.

Seismic expression of shallow- to deep-water contourites along the south-eastern Brazilian margin

The Neogene-to-Quaternary sediment section along the south-eastern Brazilian margin was deeply influenced by bottom currents acting from the upper slope down to the continental rise in water depths ranging from 100 m to > 3,500 m. Different depositional styles are observed as a resultant of the interaction between bottom currents, seafloor topography, available grain size and time span involved in the process. Their importance in the sedimentary record varies in accordance with the intensity of that interaction. Deposits associated to bottom currents are both coarse-grained and fine-grained and are distributed along all margins. The identification of coarse-grained deposits in deep-water is critical for the petroleum industry, thus characterising sandy contourites as relevant for the understanding of reservoir analogues. Slope plastered sand sheets occur in the upper slope setting. They are strike-fed, along slope-elongated and internally characterised by high amplitude seismic reflections usually developing reflection free blankets above erosional terraces due to their small thickness (in average less than 30 m thick). Middle and lower slope contourites are mostly constituted of fine-grained plastered and separated drifts, where a general upslope migration trend and an erosional basal surface are observed. The seafloor topography from the foot of the slope towards the continental rise is controlled by salt walls and diapirs which influence the acceleration of the currents and the development of contourite drifts. Paleoceanographic reconstructions supported by seismic evidence indicate that the major currents sculpting the seafloor are southerly originated and their action can overcome the importance of gravity currents where continental supply is reduced.

Evidence of bottom current influence on the Neogene to Quaternary sedimentation along the northern Campos Slope, SW Atlantic Margin

Abstract Geophysical and sedimentological data indicate that bottom currents have played a fundamental role in deposition along the Campos continental slope, especially during the Neogene and Quaternary. Sediment drifts are clearly observed in 2D and 3D seismic data. The external geometry and internal reflection pattern of these drifts suggest the predominant action of northward-flowing currents (Southern Ocean Current) along the middle and lower slope (650-1200 m). Upper Quaternary sediments within that zone are composed of highly bioturbated, silty to sandy mud, with rare lamination and no other primary structures. On the upper slope, below the southward flowing Brazil Current, sub-bottom profiles and side-scan sonar records indicate the development of several bedform styles. On the uppermost slope, between 200-300 m, longitudinal lineations and transverse bedforms (2D and 3D dunes) are observed. Sediments are siliciclastic to mixed silty to muddy sand, with rare primary traction structures preserved. Downslope, from 300 to 650 m, linear crested bedforms, a few metres high (2-7 m) are developed. In this zone, an alongslope similarity in the depositional style over more than 50 km suggests bottom current control on sedimentation. The deposits are composed of 1 m of silty muds overlying a decimetric layer of silty sand that grades downslope to a highly oxidized, bioturbated, fine-grained interval. The variability of sediment accumulation rate (2 to 30 cm ka_1) is related to high frequency temporal and local modifications

Deep structure of the Santos basin-São Paulo plateau system, SE Brazil

The structure and nature of the crust underlying the Santos Basin-Sao Paulo Plateau System (SSPS), in the SE Brazilian margin, are discussed based on five wide-angle seismic profiles acquired during the Santos Basin (SanBa) experiment in 2011. Velocity models allow us to precisely divide the SSPS in six domains from unthinned continental crust (Domain CC) to normal oceanic crust (Domain OC). A seventh domain (Domain D), a triangular shape region in the SE of the SSPS, is discussed by Klingelhoefer et al. (2014). Beneath the continental shelf, a ~100 km wide necking zone (Domain N) is imaged where the continental crust thins abruptly from ~40 km to less than 15 km. Toward the ocean, most of the SSPS (Domains A and C) shows velocity ranges, velocity gradients, and a Moho interface characteristic of the thinned continental crust. The central domain (Domain B) has, however, a very heterogeneous structure. While its southwestern part still exhibits extremely thinned (7 km) continental crust, its northeastern part depicts a 2–4 km thick upper layer (6.0–6.5 km/s) overlying an anomalous velocity layer (7.0–7.8 km/s) and no evidence of a Moho interface. This structure is interpreted as atypical oceanic crust, exhumed lower crust, or upper continental crust intruded by mafic material, overlying either altered mantle in the first two cases or intruded lower continental crust in the last case. The deep structure and v-shaped segmentation of the SSPS confirm that an initial episode of rifting occurred there obliquely to the general opening direction of the South Atlantic Central Segment.

Tracing mantle-reacted fluids in magma-poor rifted margins: The example of Alpine Tethyan rifted margins

The thinning of the crust and the exhumation of subcontinental mantle in magma-poor rifted margins is accompanied by a series of extensional detachment faults. We show that exhumation along these detachments is intimately related to migration of fluids leading to changes in mineralogy and chemistry of the mantle, crustal, and sedimentary rocks. Using field observation and analytical methods, we investigate the role of fluids in the fossil distal margins of the Alpine Tethys. Using Cr-Ni-V, Fe, and Mn as tracers, we show that fluids used detachment faults as pathways and interacted with the overlying crust and sediments. These observations allow us to discuss when, where, and how this interaction happened during the formation of the rifted margin. The results show that: (i) serpentinization of mantle rocks during their exhumation results in the depletion of elements and migration of mantle-reacted fluids that are channeled along active detachment system; (ii) in earlier-stages, these fluids affected the overlying syntectonic sediments by direct migration from the underlying detachments;(iii) in later-stages, these fluids arrived at the seafloor, were introduced into, or “polluted” the seawater and were absorbed by post tectonic sediments. We conclude that a significant amount of serpentinization occurred underneath the hyperextended continental crust, and that the mantle-reacted fluids might have modified the chemical composition of the sediments and seawater. We propose that the chemical signature of serpentinization related to mantle exhumation is recorded in the sediments and may serve as a proxy to date serpentinization and mantle exhumation at present-day magma-poor rifted margins.