Adrienne Martin

Methods and issues in exploring local knowledge of soils

There is a wide range of literature about the relevance of local knowledge, its use and the importance of integrating local knowledge into more formal research settings. Although it is widely recognised that the underlying principles of local and scientific knowledge differ, very little has actually been written about the process of exploring and integrating knowledge sources, particularly the implications of the choice and combination of methodologies and tools used. In this paper, we present our findings from a research project conducted in two villages in Tanzania and two villages in Uganda. The projects objective was to develop methodologies for comparing and integrating scientific and indigenous knowledge of soil and land resources, using Geographical Information System (GIS) as an integration domain. Our focus is on methods and issues in exploring local knowledge of soils. We first give a short overview of the process of exploring local knowledge of soils and the different methodologies used. We present some of the limitations and opportunities that we have encountered during the analysis, arising from the differences in methodologies used and the epistemological differences associated with each knowledge source. The paper highlights the risk that an uncritical approach to local knowledge may lead to misunderstandings and misconceptions that are not apparent until more detailed research is conducted.

Conflicts management, social capital and adoption of agroforestry technologies: empirical findings from the highlands of southwestern Uganda

In the highland ecosystems where actions by some individuals or groups often generate off-site effects among a wide range of social actors and stakeholders, the use and management of natural resources are susceptible to multiple forms of conflicts. This paper examines the hypothesis that conflicts constrain the adoption of agroforestry technologies. Using empirical data from 243 households in Kabale-Uganda, the study identified over 780 different cases of conflicts, and found positive relationships between certain types of conflicts and adoption of agroforestry technologies. The results of this paper challenge the conventional wisdom that conflicts are pervasive, and that the prevalence of conflicts is a major barrier to the adoption of NRM technologies. On the contrary, they seem to suggest that conflicts may have some positive outcomes; they provide incentives for the adoption of NRM technologies, and can be a potential force for positive social change. Conflicts are an essential feature of NRM in the highland systems and cannot therefore be ignored. What matters is the ways such conflicts are managed and resolved, and transformed into a force for positive change. We found that three dimensions of social capital (collective action, byelaws implementation and linking with local government structures) have increased the ability of communities to manage and transform conflicts into opportunities for collective action. These findings suggest new areas for further investigation to improve understanding of adoption decisions and building local capacity for scaling up the impacts of agroforestry innovations.

Strengthening Social Capital for Adaptive Governance of Natural Resources: A Participatory Learning and Action Research for Bylaws Reforms in Uganda

This article reflects on experiences of a 5-year participatory policy learning and action research (PLAR) project that aimed at strengthening local-level capacities to develop and formalize bylaws for effective natural resources management (NRM) and governance. The PLAR involved a top-bottom-up iterative process of social learning and experience sharing, policy dialogue and negotiation, and adaptive management that resulted in the formulation and formalization of a set of bylaws regulating soil erosion control, tree planting, animal grazing, bush burning, and wetland management. This article describes the participatory bylaw reform process and analyzes the mechanisms for bylaw formalization and enforcement. This experience suggests that with appropriate catalyzing, rural communities have capacities to develop their institutions, skills, and networks for participatory NRM governance. A companion article (this issue) discusses the results of a postproject tracking study on the outcomes and the conditions for sustainability and uptake potential of community bylaws reforms.

The impact of Fairtrade: Evidence, shaping factors, and future pathways

What is the evidence base for the impact of Fairtrade and how and why is the impact agenda evolving? We explore issues of design and the use of theories of change in mapping impact pathways as part of evaluations. We outline some of the findings on the different dimensions of impact (e.g. household income, livelihoods and quality of life, organizational, wider community and economy impacts), as well as environmental, empowerment, and gender impacts. This analysis draws upon a meta-review which analysed studies available in 2009 and also on more recently published studies. Finally, we identify the five key factors shaping the impact of Fairtrade and the implications for the impact assessment agenda.

Tracking Outcomes of Social Capital and Institutional Innovations in Natural Resources Management: Methodological Issues and Empirical Evidence From Participatory Bylaw Reform in Uganda

In this article we use empirical evidence from a tracking study to investigate the outcomes and potential impacts of a 5-year participatory learning and action research project that aimed at strengthening the capacity of local communities to formulate and implement bylaws for sustainable natural resource management (NRM). Results, based on participatory self-reflective practices, revealed changes in seven key outcome areas: awareness and compliance with the bylaws, participation in mutually beneficial collective action, changes in gender dynamics, connectedness and networking, adoption of NRM technologies, sustainability, and potential uptake of bylaws. We found that the main outcome of increased social capital is generally the production of more social capital. Results suggest that, with appropriate catalysis, social capital can be not only productive, but also persistent and robust over time. The study also illuminates certain negative outcomes of social capital and the challenges in dealing with social exclusion and inequity.

Cassava market development: a path to women’s empowerment or business as usual?

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa there are a number of initiatives aiming to improve the effectiveness of staple crop value chains as part of a broader discourse around markets and poverty reduction. Staple crops, such as cassava, are often considered as an entry point for targeting market interventions to the rural poor, particularly women. However, initial findings from fieldwork in Nigeria and Malawi show a much more complex picture of the role of cassava and cassava markets in men and women’s livelihoods, which varies by location, ethnicity, and life-stage of individuals. The concept of women’s empowerment, as defined by access to resources, agency, and achievements, is used in this analysis to understand these dynamics. The analysis reveals gender inequalities that can limit the ability of women to benefit from growing market opportunities. Simply targeting value chains that involve the participation of women may not benefit women de facto over time. These initial findings stress the importance of quest...

Exploring issues of rigour and utility in Fairtrade impact assessment

This article explores the evolution of Fairtrade impact assessment, which reflects the wider context of international development evaluation practice and debates. Appropriate designs and methods in evaluation are hotly contested, ultimately reflecting different development philosophies and values. Earlier Fairtrade impact studies were primarily case studies involving qualitative methods. As Fairtrade has grown and scrutiny from different stakeholders has increased, there has been increased demand for more rigour and criticism of studies that do not include a ‘credible’ counterfactual. More recently, there have been increasing numbers of impact evaluation studies using mixed designs as well as mixed methods. But challenges remain as to how to balance utility and rigour in Fairtrade impact assessment, because there are trade-offs in terms of skill and resource requirements and in relation to ethical issues. Yet all sustainability standards are being asked to both demonstrate impact and to inform impact. Ach...

Practical lessons on scaling up smallholder-inclusive and sustainable cassava value chains in Africa

Developing more inclusive and sustainable agricultural value chains at scale is a development priority. The ‘Cassava: Adding Value for Africa’ project has supported the development of value chains for high quality cassava flour (HQCF) in Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, Nigeria, and Malawi to improve the incomes and livelihoods of smallholder households, including women. The project focused on three key interventions: 1) ensuring a consistent supply of raw materials; 2) developing viable intermediaries as secondary processors or bulking agents; and 3) driving market demand. Scaling-up experiences are presented, guided by an analysis of drivers (ideas/models, vision and leadership, incentives and accountability), the enabling context (institutions, infrastructure, technology, financial, policy and regulations, partnerships and leverage, social context, environment), and the monitoring, evaluation, and learning process. Lessons for scaling up of similar value chain interventions are presented. These highlight the tension between rapid development of value chains and achieving equity and sustainability goals; the need for holistic approaches to capacity strengthening of diverse value chain actors; the role of strengthening equitable business relationships and networks as a vital element of scaling processes; and how informed engagement with government policy and regulatory issues is key, but often challenging given conflicting pressures on policymakers. The scaling process should be market-led, but the level and type of public sector and civil society investment needs careful consideration by donors, governments, and others, in particular less visible investments in fostering relationships and trust. Addressing uncertainties around smallholder-inclusive value chain development requires adaptive management and facilitation of the scaling process.

Changing natural resource research and development capability: Whither social capital?

This chapter explores changes taking place in natural resource projects and the usefulness of the concept of social capital in understanding these changes. Our definition of social capital is of ‘networks norms and trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation’ (Harriss and Renzio 1997: 922).

Perceptions, attitudes and behaviours toward urban surface water quality in Accra, Ghana

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore people’s perceptions, stated attitudes, and observed and reported behaviour to water and other environmental quality. Design/methodology/approach – The study adopted a mixed method approach. It employed a cross-sectional survey design. Ten communities were selected in Accra and its surrounding communities to indicate various levels of infrastructure provision and environmental quality. Four separate focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out in each community, with a mixed group of older and young adult men and women, a group of men only, a group of women only, and a group of young adults only. Following the FGDs, further information was obtained through structured household questionnaire survey involving 443 respondents. Findings – Different ideas were employed to explain people’s perceptions of water quality. There were common ideas such as on health, history of water use, perceptions which affect water use, and management of community activities wh...