Afton Halloran

‘Entomophagy’: an evolving terminology in need of review

There is growing interest in insects as human food in academia, food and agricultural industries, public institutions and the public at large. Yet many of the words and concepts used to describe these organisms and the human practices surrounding them are still rudimentary, compared to the diversity of the organisms themselves and the existing complexity and rapid evolution of the practices they aim to describe. The goals of this paper are to: (1) show how the roots of the term ‘entomophagy’ and its uses have evolved over time; (2) illustrate some of the term’s problems that necessitate its review; and (3) offer recommendations for use of the term in future research and other practice. Our paper offers a brief historical review of insect eating as described by certain Western cultural sources, explores some of the taxonomic ambiguities and challenges surrounding the category ‘insects’, and ultimately argues for more precise and contextual terminology in this both richly traditional and rapidly developing ...

Life cycle assessment of edible insects for food protein: a review

Compared to their vertebrate counterparts in traditional husbandry, insects are extremely efficient at converting organic matter into animal protein and dietary energy. For this reason, insects for food and feed show great potential as an environmentally friendly choice in future food systems. However, to obtain a true assessment of this, more information is needed about the production systems. Currently, only six studies applying the life cycle assessment (LCA) method to insect production systems have been published. The studies are heterogenous and thus difficult to compare. The aim of this paper was to establish a versatile reference framework that would allow for the selection of standardized settings for LCA applications in insect production systems, taking both the peculiarity of each system and the latest developments in food LCA into account. It is recommended that future LCAs of insect production systems take the following into account: (1) clear definition of the insect species and life stages included in the LCA, (2) use of at least two of the following types of functional units: nutritional, mass, or economic-based, (3) collection of empirical data in situ (e.g., on farms/production sites), (4) comparative analysis where production systems produce products that are realistic alternatives to the insect species under investigation, (5) inclusion of additional or previously unconsidered unit processes, such as processing and storage and waste management, and (6) use of a wide range of impact categories, especially climate change, resource consumption, nutrient enrichment potential, acidification potential, and impacts on land and water consumption in order to allow for comparison between studies.

Regulating edible insects: the challenge of addressing food security, nature conservation, and the erosion of traditional food culture

Entomophagy is a common practice in many regions of the world but there are few examples of national regulations that govern insects for human consumption. Where entomophagy is not common, the current regulatory discourse focuses primarily on food safety and consumer protection. In countries where insects contribute to local diets, nature conservation is often an issue of high importance. This paper investigates the variation in the ways in which entomophagy and its related activities are currently regulated in Thailand, Switzerland, Kenya and Canada. Authoritative bodies who are responsible and the roles they play are discussed. Insects have only recently entered into the sustainable food dialogue, but have not yet been incorporated into policy documents and have been largely omitted from regulatory frameworks. Moreover, even in nations where there is a tradition of consuming a variety of insect species, they do not appear explicitly in dietary guidelines. Although food safety is a major concern, it can undermine the importance of nature conservation, traditional food culture, food security, and potential economic development. Thus, entomophagy should be viewed holistically and development of future legislation must take into consideration its multi-dimensional nature.

The development of the edible cricket industry in Thailand

Since cricket farming was introduced in Thailand in 1997, domestic, regional and international interest in the edible cricket industry has increased. This study aims to identify emerging themes related the development of the edible cricket industry over the past decades. It also discusses additional themes in the development of the cricket industry in connection to the work of other scholars, as well as future considerations to maintain the positive impacts of the industry on rural economic development, entrepreneurship and employment. Eight types of actors in the cricket industry were considered in this study: cricket farmers; wholesale traders and market vendors; tourism agents; international organisa tions; chefs; private companies; researchers; and governmental representatives. The farming and sale of crickets is still a small-scale activity which is relatively profitable for the farmers and other actors in the value chain. Based on the findings of this study, the constraints to growth and further exp...

Planning the unplanned: incorporating agriculture as an urban land use into the Dar es Salaam master plan and beyond

Despite significant contributions to human health, livelihoods and food security, urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam has received relatively little political support from central and local government due to its informal state. As a result, many urban farmers’ experience insecurity of land access and ownership, and are unable to invest in the improvement of their land, inputs and infrastructure. Although there have been several attempts by various international and foreign organizations to legitimize and institutionalize urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, very little has changed politically over the past 30 years. This study focuses on the current incorporation of urban agriculture into the Dar es Salaam 2012−2032 Master Plan (still unapproved as of June 2013), and examines how local and central governments legitimize the practice of urban agriculture. It also looks at how greater acceptance, or institutionalization, can take place through formalized processes. The past and present legitimization processes for urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, and their intended and unintended outcomes, provide an in-depth analysis for this case study. It argues that the sustainability of urban agriculture is largely dependent on political commitment from both local and central government. Legitimization of the practice through policy and rules and regulations can facilitate the further institutionalization of urban agriculture, especially in land use planning. However, it can also further marginalize urban farmers who cultivate open spaces within the city. Nonetheless, urban agriculture will continue to persist, adapting and innovating under the pressures of urbanization.

The role of local government in promoting sustainable urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam and Copenhagen

As a multifunctional activity and land use, urban agriculture supports a range of objectives, from urban greening to food security. However, it is often left out of urban policy. As a result of the highly contextual and cross-cutting nature of urban agriculture, there are relatively few comprehensive and formalized regulatory tools to draw from. Different cities around the world are now deciding how to fit urban agriculture into the urban agenda; however, in many places urban agriculture continues to operate in the absence of legitimization due to its relatively mobile and dynamic nature. This article looks at the importance of local and central governments in promoting sustainable urban agriculture. Through participatory action research, it examines the cases of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Copenhagen, Denmark to understand stakeholder interactions, as well as present and future barriers to the conservation of existing urban agriculture and future initiatives. The findings suggest that municipal recognition and institutional support for urban agriculture is an important component in increasing the sustainability of related initiatives. Local and central government plays a role in the legitimization and institutionalization of urban agriculture through the facilitation of multi-stakeholder processes, policy development and the conservation and allocation of land.

Insects in the human food chain: global status and opportunities

Insects are part of the traditional diets of approximately 2 billion people worldwide. Insects can contribute to food security and be a part of the solution to protein shortages, given their high nutritional value, low emissions of greenhouse gases, low requirements for land and water, and the high efficiency at which they can convert feed into food. This article outlines the potential of insects as a food for humans as well as a feedstock for animals and fish. The majority of insects consumed in developing countries today are harvested in nature from wild populations. In Western countries, the disgust factor in considering insects as food, combined currently with their limited availability on the market, and a lack of regulations governing insects as food and feed, are major barriers for their further expansion. However, the biggest opportunity may well lie in the production of insect biomass as feedstock for animals and fish, to partly replace the increasingly expensive protein ingredients of compound feeds in the livestock industries. Considering the immense quantities of insect biomass needed to replace current protein-rich ingredients such as meal from fish and soybeans, automated mass rearing facilities need to be developed. For this to occur, significant technological innovations, changes in consumer food preferences, insect-encompassing food and feed legislation, and progress towards more sustainable food production systems are needed. The close collaboration of government, food and feed industry, media, chefs, and academia will be essential for success.

New protein sources and food legislation: the case of edible insects and EU law

Growing global food demand has generated a greater interest in the consumption of new and diversified protein sources. Novel foodstuffs represent a challenge for food law as they need proper safety assessments before obtaining market permission. The case of edible insects and European law is a good representation of this issue because a selection of food grade insect species may be available on the European market in the coming years. However, European legislation does not explicitly address edible insects. Consequently, this has left a grey area, allowing different interpretations of the legislation among Member States. The aim of this paper is to analyse the challenge of the safe management of edible insects in the context of the current legal framework. The current Novel Food legislation, as well as the forthcoming version of the legislation, will be analysed and discussed in relation to edible insects. Particular attention will be paid to the evolution of legislation and to the experiences of both EU and non-EU countries. In recent years, a number of different stakeholders have supported the legalization of edible insect consumption in Europe, but market permission is just the first step towards a new framework for a novel food in a regulatory context. Once admitted, edible insects require proper rules to assure consumers and stakeholders of their benefits and safety. This overview highlights the need to develop clearer legislation to govern the future production and consumption of new food in Europe, provide guarantees to producers, and achieve consumer protection.

Notes from the ‘Insects in a gastronomic context’ workshop in Bangkok, Thailand

Amidst the growing interest in edible insects, most insect dishes featured on menus or during public events are still primarily focused on fried, freeze dried or pulverised insects. This can be attributed to a limited understanding and knowledge of the complexity and variation in unique sensory profiles of insects, as well as how they can be processed. In order to bridge this knowledge gap, Le Cordon Bleu Dusit Culinary School hosted a free, public workshop on ‘Insects in a gastronomic context’ in Bangkok, Thailand on 19 February 2015. The event took its point of departure in focusing on the growing body of scientific and practical knowledge of the field. Four unique dishes were created for the event and participants were invited to evaluate them. Event participation included that of chefs, practitioners, entrepreneurs and scientists. This paper recounts the events leading up to the workshop, as well as the sensory evaluation of the dishes. After the presentation, 93% of the participants noted that they w...

The Effects of Regulation, Legislation and Policy on Consumption of Edible Insects in the Global South

With an expanding edible insect industry, regulators, legislators, and policy-makers face increasingly difficult decisions regarding trade, production, harvesting, and consumption. It is becoming clearer that no panacea or one-size-fits-all solutions exist for regulating the industry, and that solutions regarding a formal or informal economy must be tailored to each country and culture. If the edible insect industry is to expand, and if insects are to be a sustainable protein source in the future, it is crucial that the effects of current legal measures are mapped out. This will lay the foundation for creating future solutions, taking food safety, environmental sustainability, and consumer acceptance into consideration. Exploring how informal solutions, or a lack of legal measures, can end up advancing an industry or economy will also be an important tool in making the insect industry successful and sustainable. Lastly, it is imperative to understand that the consequences of both sensationalizing and alienating the consumption of edible insects, especially in a legal context, might impact not just the citizens of the Global North, but also the attitudes, and hence consumption behaviors, of those in the Global South.