Agnes Petocz

Moral theory in ethical decision making: Problems, clarifications and recommendations from a psychological perspective

Psychological theory and research in ethical decision making and ethical professional practice are presently hampered by a failure to take appropriate account of an extensive background in moral philosophy. As a result, attempts to develop models of ethical decision making are left vulnerable to a number of criticisms: that they neglect the problems of meta-ethics and the variety of meta-ethical perspectives; that they fail clearly and consistently to differentiate between descriptive and prescriptive accounts; that they leave unexplicated the theoretical assumptions derived from the underlying moral theories; and that they fail to accommodate the complexity and comprehensiveness of the processes involved in the making and implementing of ethical decisions. Many of these problems also have implications for the methodological domain. This paper offers an analysis of the difficulties, and makes a number of recommendations for future theory, research and practical applications, including: the need for training in moral philosophy; clarification of the status of Professional Codes in decisional models; the development of theoretically comprehensive prescriptive models; and the testing of these models in ways that do justice to their dimensional scope and theoretical complexity.

Auditory warnings, signal-referent relations, and natural indicators: re-thinking theory and application

In auditory warning design the idea of the strength of the association between sound and referent has been pivotal. Research has proceeded via constructing classification systems of signal-referent associations and then testing predictions about ease of learning of different levels of signal-referent relation strength across and within different types of auditory signal (viz., speech, abstract sounds, and auditory icons). However, progress is hampered by terminological confusions and by neglect of the cognitive contribution (viz., learning) of the person or user. Drawing upon semiotics and cognitive psychology, the authors highlight the indexical (as opposed to iconic) nature of so-called auditory icons, and the authors identify the cogniser as an indispensable element in the tripartite nature of signification. Classifications that neglect this third element, defining signal-referent relation strength only dyadically, yield results confounded by learning; classifications that correctly include the triadic relation yield research predictions that are redundant. These limitations of the standard method of constructing and testing classification systems suggest that auditory warning design must take the cognitive contribution of the user into account at an earlier stage in the design process.

Designing informative warning signals: Effects of indicator type,modality, and task demand on recognition speed and accuracy

An experiment investigated the assumption that natural indicators which exploit existing learned associations between a signal and an event make more effective warnings than previously unlearned symbolic indicators. Signal modality (visual, auditory) and task demand (low, high) were also manipulated. Warning effectiveness was indexed by accuracy and reaction time (RT) recorded during training and dual task test phases. Thirty-six participants were trained to recognize 4 natural and 4 symbolic indicators, either visual or auditory, paired with critical incidents from an aviation context. As hypothesized, accuracy was greater and RT was faster in response to natural indicators during the training phase. This pattern of responding was upheld in test phase conditions with respect to accuracy but observed in RT only in test phase conditions involving high demand and the auditory modality. Using the experiment as a specific example, we argue for the importance of considering the cognitive contribution of the user (viz., prior learned associations) in the warning design process. Drawing on semiotics and cognitive psychology, we highlight the indexical nature of so-called auditory icons or natural indicators and argue that the cogniser is an indispensable element in the tripartite nature of signification.

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE TWENTY -FIRST CENTURY: Closing the Gap between Science and the Symbol

Contemporary psychology remains hampered by its failure to resolve its identity problem vis-a-vis its status as a science, its neglect of the human being as animal symbolicum, and its continued acceptance of an impassable gulf between “science” and “meaning”. This gulf has become particularly prominent as a result of the impact of various postmodernist movements and their critique of the empiricist foundationalism of traditional scientific psychology. Unfortunately, however, many of these movements have succeeded in further entrenching scientific psychology’s own pre-existing misconceptions both of “science” and of “meaning”, misconceptions which have received scattered attention but which are now in need of more extensive scrutiny. Such scrutiny opens the way for a rigorous and systematic elucidation of the concept of “meaning” from the perspective of the logical and psychological requirements by which that concept is demonstrably constrained, thus re-locating the symbol appropriately within scientific psychology.

Unifying psychology through situational realism

We propose that a coherent and thoroughgoing version of realism, known as situational realism, offers a unifying program for psychology. This realism emerges from the conditions of being that enable knowledge and discourse. Because this research originated largely in a centurys work by Australian psychologists and philosophers, we will introduce and explain research and vocabulary that might be unfamiliar to some readers. The approach is characterized by seven themes: ontological egalitarianism; situational complexity and process orientation; a network or field view of causality; a realist logic; a view of relations as nonconstitutive; an externalist relational approach to mind; and acceptance of critical inquiry as the core scientific method. The combination of these features offers psychology the following: a metatheoretical framework that resolves current tensions; expansion into the field of meanings and reintegration with hermeneutics and semiotics; clarification and redirection of mainstream cognitive neuroscience and information processing; an integrative approach to personality; expansion, redirection and unification of psychological research methods; and revision and expansion in psychological practice and teaching.

Illusion decrement and transfer of illusion decrement in Müller-Lyer figures.

In the work reported in the literature the reduction or decrement in the magnitude of the Müller-Lyer illusion with continued inspection has been typically investigated with the use of the composite illusion form. Three experiments are reported in which the illusion decrement was separately examined in the underestimated (wings-in) and the overestimated (wings-out) forms of the Müller-Lyer illusion, with particular attention paid to the transfer of illusion decrement between the two forms. Decrement occurred in both forms of the Müller-Lyer illusion, although there was considerable intersubject variability in decrement effects, and nonuniform rates of decrement across the inspection period. In none of the experiments did transfer of illusion decrement between the two forms occur. It is argued that the attentional/differentiation hypothesis of illusion decrement provides a plausible account of the present findings as well as of those found with the composite Müller-Lyer figure.

The User Knows: Considering the Cognitive Contribution of the User in the Design of Auditory Warnings

An experiment that investigated effects of modality, warning type, and task demand on warning recognition speed and accuracy is reported. Using the experiment as a specific example, we argue for the importance of considering the cognitive contribution of the user (viz. prior learned associations) in the warning design process. Drawing on semiotics and cognitive psychology, we highlight the indexical nature of so-called auditory icons or natural indicators and argue that the cogniser is an indispensable element in the tripartite nature of signification.

The Use of Multimodal Representation in Icon Interpretation

Identifying icon functions differs from naming pictures in that strong semantic links between pictures and their names have been formed over a long period of time whereas the meaning of icons has often to be learned. This paper examines roles of icon characteristics such as complexity, concreteness, familiarity and aesthetic appeal in determining how easily icons can be learned and identified. The role of these characteristics is seen as dynamic, changing as the user learns the icon set. It is argued that the way in which users learn icon meanings is similar to the processes involved in language learning. Icon meanings are learned by drawing on rich multimodal representations which are the result of our world experience. This approach could lead to a better understanding of how multimodal information can be most usefully presented on interfaces.