Agneta H. Fischer

Review: The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review

It has been argued that the communication of emotions is more difficult in computer-mediated communication (CMC) than in face-to-face (F2F) communication. The aim of this paper is to review the empirical evidence in order to gain insight in whether emotions are communicated differently in these different modes of communication. We review two types of studies: (1) studies that explicitly examine discrete emotions and emotion expressions, and (2) studies that examine emotions more implicitly, namely as self-disclosure or emotional styles. Our conclusion is that there is no indication that CMC is a less emotional or less personally involving medium than F2F. On the contrary, emotional communication online and offline is surprisingly similar, and if differences are found they show more frequent and explicit emotion communication in CMC than in F2F.

Beat them or ban them : The characteristics and social functions of anger and contempt

This article reports 3 studies in which the authors examined (a) the distinctive characteristics of anger and contempt responses and (b) the interpersonal causes and effects of both emotions. In the 1st study, the authors examined the distinction between the 2 emotions; in the 2nd study, the authors tested whether contempt could be predicted from previous anger incidents with the same person; and in the 3rd study, the authors examined the effects of type of relationship on anger and contempt reactions. The results of the 3 studies show that anger and contempt often occur together but that there are clear distinctions between the 2 emotions: Anger is characterized more by short-term attack responses but long-term reconciliation, whereas contempt is characterized by rejection and social exclusion of the other person, both in the short-term and in the long-term. The authors also found that contempt may develop out of previously experienced anger and that a lack of intimacy with and perceived control over the behavior of the other person, as well as negative dispositional attributions about the other person, predicted the emergence of contempt.

Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium

Emotions are central to human behavior and experience. Yet scientific theory and research during most of the twentieth century largely ignored the emotions until a quite dramatic change that took place during its last thirty years, which witnessed an upsurge of interest in emotions in a number of disciplines. Just after the turn of the century therefore seemed to be an appropriate time to take stock of current scientific reflection on emotions. This book arose from the twenty-four keynote papers presented at a symposium held in June 2001 that bore the same title. The aim of that meeting was to review the current state of the art of research on emotions from a multidisciplinary perspective. Each chapter here is authored by an acknowledged authority in the respective field. Together they provide an overview of what is currently being studied and thought about the emotions in disciplines ranging from neurophysiology and experimental psychology to sociology and philosophy.

Gender Differences in Motives for Regulating Emotions

The present study was designed to test the assumption that gender differences in emotion expression are based on differences in the motives held by men and women in social interactions. Three hundred and fourteen students participated in this study by completing a questionnaire. Each questionnaire contained two vignettes that varied with respect to type of emotion (anger, disappointment, fear or sadness), sex of target, and object-target relationship. Dependent variables included measures of emotion expression and of motives for regulating ones emotions. The results support the general hypothesis that women are more concerned with relationships and less reluctant to express powerless emotions, whereas men are more motivated to stay in control and tend to express emotions that reflect their power.

Gender and culture differences in emotion

In this article, the authors report a secondary analysis on a cross-cultural dataset on gender differences in 6 emotions, collected in 37 countries all over the world. The aim was to test the universality of the gender-specific pattern found in studies with Western respondents, namely that men report more powerful emotions (e.g., anger), whereas women report more powerless emotions (e.g., sadness, fear). The authors expected the strength of these gender differences to depend on womens status and roles in their respective countries, as operationalized by the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM; United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2002). Overall, the gender-specific pattern of women reporting to experience and express more powerless emotions and men more powerful emotions was replicated, and only some interactions with the GEM were found.

Emotional Mimicry as Social Regulation

Emotional mimicry is the imitation of the emotional expressions of others. According to the classic view on emotional mimicry (the Matched Motor Hypothesis), people mimic the specific facial movements that comprise a discrete emotional expression. However, little evidence exists for the mimicry of discrete emotions; rather, the extant evidence supports only valence-based mimicry. We propose an alternative Emotion Mimicry in Context view according to which emotional mimicry is not based on mere perception but rather on the interpretation of signals as emotional intentions in a specific context. We present evidence for the idea that people mimic contextualized emotions rather than simply expressive muscle movements. Our model postulates that (implicit or explicit) contextual information is needed for emotional mimicry to take place. It takes into account the relationship between observer and expresser, and suggests that emotional mimicry depends on this relationship and functions as a social regulator.

Moving faces, looking places: validation of the Amsterdam Dynamic Facial Expression Set (ADFES)

We report two studies validating a new standardized set of filmed emotion expressions, the Amsterdam Dynamic Facial Expression Set (ADFES). The ADFES is distinct from existing datasets in that it includes a face-forward version and two different head-turning versions (faces turning toward and away from viewers), North-European as well as Mediterranean models (male and female), and nine discrete emotions (joy, anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust, contempt, pride, and embarrassment). Study 1 showed that the ADFES received excellent recognition scores. Recognition was affected by social categorization of the model: displays of North-European models were better recognized by Dutch participants, suggesting an ingroup advantage. Head-turning did not affect recognition accuracy. Study 2 showed that participants more strongly perceived themselves to be the cause of the others emotion when the models face turned toward the respondents. The ADFES provides new avenues for research on emotion expression and is available for researchers upon request.

Illuminating the glass ceiling: The role of organizational culture preferences

We present two studies that investigated womens motives to pursue a career in top management. The central hypothesis was that masculine culture preferences are important predictors for career motives. Women were expected to have less masculine preferences than men do, which is assumed to be a determinant of their relative absence in management positions. In Study 1 (N =327), we investigated gender differences in organizational culture preferences, both in a managerial sample and a sample of non-managerial professionals in private sector organizations. It was shown that gender differences only existed in the non-managerial groups, with women showing less masculine culture preferences than men did. In Study 2 (N =350), we examined the effects of organizational culture preferences on the ambitions of staff employees and middle-level managers to pursue a career at a top management level in one governmental organization. The results showed that organizational culture preferences were predictive for ambition of non-managerial employees, but not for that of middle management employees. Overall, women were less ambitious than men, and even ambitious women perceived work-home conflict as an important barrier to career advancement.

The role of honour concerns in emotional reactions to offences

We investigated the role of honour concerns in mediating the effect of nationality and gender on the reported intensity of anger and shame in reaction to insult vignettes. Spain, an honour culture, and The Netherlands, where honour is of less central significance, were selected for comparison. A total of 260 (125 Dutch, 135 Spanish) persons participated in the research. Participants completed a measure of honour concerns and answered questions about emotional reactions of anger and shame to vignettes depicting insults in which type of threat was manipulated. It was found that Spanish participants responded especially intensely to insults that threaten family honour, and that this effect of nationality on emotional reactions to threats to family honour was mediated by individual differences in concern for family honour.

The Role of Honor-Related Values in the Elicitation, Experience, and Communication of Pride, Shame, and Anger: Spain and the Netherlands Compared

The authors investigated how honor-related values affect pride, shame, and anger. Spain and the Netherlands were selected for comparison because honor-related values are relatively more important in Spain, whereas individualistic values are relatively more important in the Netherlands. A total of 327 (169 Spanish, 158 Dutch) persons participated in the research. Participants answered questions about autobiographical experiences of pride, shame, and anger and about vignettes describing events that could give rise to these emotions. The observed differences are consistent with the notion that honor-related values are relatively more important in shaping the experience and expression of pride, shame, and anger in Spain, whereas individualistic values are relatively more important in shaping the experience and expression of these emotions in the Netherlands.