Aida Rompis

Primate-to-human retroviral transmission in Asia.

We describe the first reported transmission to a human of simian foamy virus (SFV) from a free-ranging population of nonhuman primates in Asia. The transmission of an exogenous retrovirus, SFV, from macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to a human at a monkey temple in Bali, Indonesia, was investigated with molecular and serologic techniques. Antibodies to SFV were detected by Western blotting of serum from 1 of 82 humans tested. SFV DNA was detected by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the blood of the same person. Cloning and sequencing of PCR products confirmed the viruss close phylogenetic relationship to SFV isolated from macaques at the same temple. This study raises concerns that persons who work at or live around monkey temples are at risk for infection with SFV.

Diverse Contexts of Zoonotic Transmission of Simian Foamy Viruses in Asia

These infections are likely prevalent among persons who live or work near nonhuman primates.

Pests, Pestilence, and People: The Long-Tailed Macaque and Its Role in the Cultural Complexities of Bali

Bali’s unique religious tradition established the foundations of a system of island-wide rice agriculture that is organized around interconnected water temples, known as subaks (Lansing 2007). This temple-oriented rice agricultural system was well established at the time of the Dutch Colonization of Indonesia, approximately 500 years ago, and has remained relatively stable since that time with subaks and traditional rice agriculture practices enjoying renewed success within the last 30 years since Indonesia’s Green Revolution (Wheatley 1999; Lansing 2007). Historically, the island’s temples have effectively governed and coordinated the timing of planting, irrigating, and harvesting rice, preventing water shortages and disease outbreaks in doing so. As the site for religious, agricultural, and cultural events, the temple system acts as the cohesive and organizing power for whole villages. It is this interwoven framework of temples, rice fields, villages, and associated forest patches that forms the complex cultural and physical landscape in which Balinese long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) exist (Fuentes et al. 2005).

Influenza Virus Infection in Nonhuman Primates

To determine whether nonhuman primates are infected with influenza viruses in nature, we conducted serologic and swab studies among macaques from several parts of the world. Our detection of influenza virus and antibodies to influenza virus raises questions about the role of nonhuman primates in the ecology of influenza.

Monkeys on the Edge: Macaque behavior at the human–monkey interface: The activity and demography of semi-free-ranging Macaca fascicularis at Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia

Introduction Macaca fascicularis is an excellent species to examine adaptation to a particularly wide array of habitats and environmental variables, especially where human impact is a core component of the landscape. Within the long-tailed macaque species ( Macaca fascicularis ) there are at least ten subspecies, dramatic variation in facial hair patterns, and body size varies from 2.5–7.0 kg for females and 4.7–14 kg for males (Gumert, Chapter 1; Fooden, 1995; Napier and Napier, 1967; Rowe, 1996). Despite their well-documented occurrence and utilization of primary tropical rainforest (up to 2,000m elevation), the long-tailed macaques appear to prefer riverine habitats, coastal forests, swamp or mixed forests and secondary forest habitats (Crockett and Wilson, 1980). The ability to thrive in a variety of environmental types probably played a role in this groups evolutionary success throughout Southeast Asia especially during the last 5–8,000 years of human-induced (agricultural) environmental change. The island of Bali is approximately 5632 km 2 and has a rich history of volcanic activity and thus some of the most fertile soils in the world. There are approximately 247 rivers all cascading down slopes from the central volcanic range. During both the wet and dry seasons moisture accumulates above the volcanoes in the center of the islands providing a nearly year-round supply for the rivers that course rapidly down towards the sea, creating deep ravines and ready access to water for the south central portion of the island.

The Not-So-Sacred Monkeys of Bali: A Radiographic Study of Human-Primate Commensalism

Humans and nonhuman primates have coexisted and interacted for millennia in Asia. Interspecies interaction is particularly intensive at religious sites that are commonly referred to by Westerners as “monkey temples” or “monkey forests”. These monkey temples are found throughout South and Southeast Asia, and some have evolved into significant tourist destinations, often contributing substantially to the economic base of the communities in which they are located. In Bali, the location and structural layout of temples are guided by the Balinese Hindu philosophies of Nawa Sanga (the ritual grid organizing space) and Tri Hita Karana (the three ideals for achieving balance between humans, gods, and the natural world). Balinese culture emphasizes harmony between humankind and nature. Adherence to these traditional values has contributed to the preservation of forests and other natural landscape features associated with the temple areas and protection of nonhuman denizens found at these sites (Fuentes et al. 2005).

Human behavior and opportunities for parasite transmission in communities surrounding long-tailed macaque populations in Bali, Indonesia

Spatial overlap and shared resources between humans and wildlife can exacerbate parasite transmission dynamics. In Bali, Indonesia, an agricultural‐religious temple system provides sanctuaries for long‐tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), concentrating them in areas in close proximity to humans. In this study, we interviewed individuals in communities surrounding 13 macaque populations about their willingness to participate in behaviors that would put them at risk of exposure to gastrointestinal parasites to understand if age, education level, or occupation are significant determinants of exposure behaviors. These exposure risk behaviors and attitudes include fear of macaques, direct contact with macaques, owning pet macaques, hunting and eating macaques, and overlapping water uses. We find that willingness to participate in exposure risk behaviors are correlated with an individuals occupation, age, and/or education level. We also found that because the actual risk of infection varies across populations, activities such as direct macaque contact and pet ownership, could be putting individuals at real risk in certain contexts. Thus, we show that human demographics and social structure can influence willingness to participate in behaviors putting them at increased risk for exposure to parasites. Am. J. Primatol. 76:159–167, 2014.

Survey of Treponemal Infections in Free-Ranging and Captive Macaques, 1999–2012

Survey results showed treponemal infection among pet macaques in Southeast Asia, a region with a high prevalence of human yaws. This finding, along with studies showing treponemal infection in nonhuman primates in Africa, should encourage a One Health approach to yaws eradication and surveillance activities, possibly including monitoring of nonhuman primates in yaws-endemic regions.

From the Mouths of Monkeys

Although the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) infects a third of all humans, little is known regarding the prevalence of mycobacterial infection in nonhuman primates (NHP). For more than a century, tuberculosis has been regarded as a serious infectious threat to NHP species. Advances in the detection of MTBC open new possibilities for investigating the effects of this poorly understood pathogen in diverse populations of NHP. Here, we report results of a cross‐sectional study using well‐described molecular methods to detect a nucleic acid sequence (IS6110) unique to the MTBC. Sample collection was focused on the oral cavity, the presumed route of transmission of MTBC. Buccal swabs were collected from 263 macaques representing 11 species in four Asian countries and Gibraltar. Contexts of contact with humans included free ranging, pets, performing monkeys, zoos, and monkey temples. Following DNA isolation from buccal swabs, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified IS6110 from 84 (31.9%) of the macaques. In general, prevalence of MTBC DNA was higher among NHP in countries where the World Health Organization reports higher prevalence of humans infected with MTBC. This is the first demonstration of MTBC DNA in the mouths of macaques. Further research is needed to establish the significance of this finding at both the individual and population levels. PCR of buccal samples holds promise as a method to elucidate the mycobacterial landscape among NHP, particularly macaques that thrive in areas of high human MTBC prevalence. Am. J. Primatol. 74:676–686, 2012.

From the Mouths of Monkeys: Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex DNA From Buccal Swabs of Synanthropic Macaques: MTBC DNA Detection From Oral Swabs

Although the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) infects a third of all humans, little is known regarding the prevalence of mycobacterial infection in nonhuman primates (NHP). For more than a century, tuberculosis has been regarded as a serious infectious threat to NHP species. Advances in the detection of MTBC open new possibilities for investigating the effects of this poorly understood pathogen in diverse populations of NHP. Here, we report results of a cross‐sectional study using well‐described molecular methods to detect a nucleic acid sequence (IS6110) unique to the MTBC. Sample collection was focused on the oral cavity, the presumed route of transmission of MTBC. Buccal swabs were collected from 263 macaques representing 11 species in four Asian countries and Gibraltar. Contexts of contact with humans included free ranging, pets, performing monkeys, zoos, and monkey temples. Following DNA isolation from buccal swabs, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified IS6110 from 84 (31.9%) of the macaques. In general, prevalence of MTBC DNA was higher among NHP in countries where the World Health Organization reports higher prevalence of humans infected with MTBC. This is the first demonstration of MTBC DNA in the mouths of macaques. Further research is needed to establish the significance of this finding at both the individual and population levels. PCR of buccal samples holds promise as a method to elucidate the mycobacterial landscape among NHP, particularly macaques that thrive in areas of high human MTBC prevalence. Am. J. Primatol. 74:676–686, 2012.