Aijie Liu

Protein Cages as Containers for Gold Nanoparticles

Abundant and highly diverse, viruses offer new scaffolds in nanotechnology for the encapsulation, organization, or even synthesis of novel materials. In this work the coat protein of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) is used to encapsulate gold nanoparticles with different sizes and stabilizing ligands yielding stable particles in buffered solutions at neutral pH. The sizes of the virus-like particles correspond to T = 1, 2, and 3 Caspar-Klug icosahedral triangulation numbers. We developed a simple one-step process enabling the encapsulation of commercially available gold nanoparticles without prior modification with up to 97% efficiency. The encapsulation efficiency is further increased using bis-p-(sufonatophenyl)phenyl phosphine surfactants up to 99%. Our work provides a simplified procedure for the preparation of metallic particles stabilized in CCMV protein cages. The presented results are expected to enable the preparation of a variety of similar virus-based colloids for current focus areas.

Self-Assembly of Proteins: Towards Supramolecular Materials

The study of protein self-assembly has attracted great interest over the decades, due to the important role that proteins play in life. In contrast to the major achievements that have been made in the fields of DNA origami, RNA, and synthetic peptides, methods for the design of self-assembling proteins have progressed more slowly. This Concept article provides a brief overview of studies on native protein and artificial scaffold assemblies and highlights advances in designing self-assembling proteins. The discussions are focused on design strategies for self-assembling proteins, including protein fusion, chemical conjugation, supramolecular, and computational-aided de novo design.

Structural Characterization of Native and Modified Encapsulins as Nanoplatforms for in Vitro Catalysis and Cellular Uptake

Recent years have witnessed the emergence of bacterial semiorganelle encapsulins as promising platforms for bio-nanotechnology. To advance the development of encapsulins as nanoplatforms, a functional and structural basis of these assemblies is required. Encapsulin from Brevibacterium linens is known to be a protein-based vessel for an enzyme cargo in its cavity, which could be replaced with a foreign cargo, resulting in a modified encapsulin. Here, we characterize the native structure of B. linens encapsulins with both native and foreign cargo using cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). Furthermore, by harnessing the confined enzyme (i.e., a peroxidase), we demonstrate the functionality of the encapsulin for an in vitro surface-immobilized catalysis in a cascade pathway with an additional enzyme, glucose oxidase. We also demonstrate the in vivo functionality of the encapsulin for cellular uptake using mammalian macrophages. Unraveling both the structure and functionality of the encapsulins allows transforming biological nanocompartments into functional systems.

Nanoreactors via Encapsulation of Catalytic Gold Nanoparticles within Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus Protein Cages

Viral protein cage-based nanoreactors can be generated by encapsulation of catalytic metal nanoparticles within the capsid structure. In this method, coat proteins of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) are used to sequester gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) in buffered solutions at neutral pH to form CCMV-Au hybrid nanoparticles. This chapter describes detailed methods for the encapsulation of Au NPs into CCMV protein cages. Protocols for the reduction of nitroarenes by using CCMV-Au NPs as catalyst are described as an example for the catalytic activity of Au NPs in the protein cages.

Construction of core-shell hybrid nanoparticles templated by virus-like particles

Plant viruses have been widely used as templates for the synthesis of organic–inorganic hybrids. However, the fine-tuning of hybrid nanoparticle structures, especially the control of inorganic particle size as well as where the silication occurs (i.e. outside and/or inside of the capsid), by simply tuning the pH remains a challenge. By taking advantage of the templating effect of Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus (CCMV) protein cages, we show that the silication at the exterior or interior surface of protein capsids, as well as the resulting structures of silica/virus hybrid nanoparticles can be fine-tuned by pH. At pH 4.0, only small silica particles (diameter of 2.5 nm) were formed inside the protein cages; at pH 6.0, silication mainly takes place inside of the protein cages, leading to monodisperse silica nanoparticles with diameters of 14 nm; and at pH 7.5, silica deposition takes place both at the interior and exterior surfaces of protein cages in aqueous conditions. Under these reaction conditions, multiple component hybrid virus/nanoparticulate systems, such as CCMVAu/silica and Au/silica nanoparticles were prepared step-by-step. Upon removal of the CCMV template by thermal degradation a single gold nanoparticle can be encapsulated in a hollow silica shell emulating the structure of a babys rattle with an unattached solid particle within a hollow particle. The Au/silica core-hollow shell nanoparticles can then be further used as a stable catalyst. It is anticipated that these synthetic methods provide a versatile methodology to prepare core–shell nanomaterials with well-designed structure and functionality.

Viral Protein Cages as Building Blocks for Functional Materials

We have developed virus-based protein cage functional materials for catalysis and optical coatings. The unique properties of the viral particles, such as in vitro reversible self-assembly with functional nanoparticles or molecules incorporated, their capability of chemical or genetic modification and the ability to self-assembly into high-order structures, were employed to introduce new or different functions into these catalytic and/or optical materials. These studies help to gain further insight in the development of virus-based materials.