Aitor Cazón

PolyJet technology for product prototyping: Tensile strength and surface roughness properties

Design and manufacturing engineers are not fully aware of the different possibilities that PolyJet™ technology offers. The goal of this article is to provide the design and manufacturing engineers with greater knowledge about the final properties of parts printed with PolyJet rapid prototyping technology. This knowledge includes the effect of printing orientation and post-processing on the mechanical and surface properties of printed parts. Eighteen different samples considered all the possible printing orientations and the surface finishing treatments recommended by the manufacturer. These finishing properties include part printing using the matte/glossy option and removal of the support material using water pressure and/or a caustic soda bath. Tensile tests and surface roughness measurements were analysed for the printed samples using the statistical design of experiments in order to determinate the influence of the printing orientation and finishing properties on the results. These tests showed that the part orientation has a significant effect on elastic modulus and fracture stress while there is no statistical significance on ultimate tensile strength. With regard to the finish, none of the tensile test outputs showed significant differences. In terms of roughness, the analysis of variance indicated that position and finish presented statistically significant differences between the means of the three roughness directions. From all these experiences, it is possible to conclude that the glossy finish and the xy printing direction worked very well regarding roughness, whereas the critical load direction of the part should be placed along the x-axis when printing.

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: From Clinical Imaging to Realistic Replicas

The goal of this work is to develop a framework for manufacturing nonuniform wall thickness replicas of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs). The methodology was based on the use of computed tomography (CT) images for virtual modeling, additive manufacturing for the initial physical replica, and a vacuum casting process and range of polyurethane resins for the final rubberlike phantom. The average wall thickness of the resulting AAA phantom was compared with the average thickness of the corresponding patient-specific virtual model, obtaining an average dimensional mismatch of 180 μm (11.14%). The material characterization of the artery was determined from uniaxial tensile tests as various combinations of polyurethane resins were chosen due to their similarity with ex vivo AAA mechanical behavior in the physiological stress configuration. The proposed methodology yields AAA phantoms with nonuniform wall thickness using a fast and low-cost process. These replicas may be used in benchtop experiments to validate deformations obtained with numerical simulations using finite element analysis, or to validate optical methods developed to image ex vivo arterial deformations during pressure-inflation testing.

Customised design and manufacture of protective face masks combining a practitioner-friendly modelling approach and low-cost devices for digitising and additive manufacturing

This project analyses the viability of an efficient modelling approach using a semi-automatic algorithm within a Computer Aided Design (CAD) application in combination with low-cost digitising devices and low-cost Additive Manufacturing (AM) printers when designing and manufacturing patient-specific face masks. The aims of the study were to enable clinical practitioners to utilise the advantages of three-dimensional (3D) scanning, CAD and AM without having to be trained to use design/engineering software. Face features were captured using two 3D devices. The resulting meshes were compared via the Hausdorff Distance method. A semi-automatic modelling procedure was developed with ‘Rhinoceros’ and ‘Grasshopper’ to model the face mask and customise several features. With that procedure, volunteers modelled a face mask in less than 30 minutes in their first attempt. The resulting virtual mask was manufactured with two AM printers. An initial economic study indicated that the presented approach offers a feasible alternative to the current practices.

A Methodology for Verifying Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Wall Stress

An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a permanent focal dilatation of the abdominal aorta of at least 1.5 times its normal diameter. Although the criterion of maximum diameter is still used in clinical practice to decide on a timely intervention, numerical studies have demonstrated the importance of other geometric factors. However, the major drawback of numerical studies is that they must be validated experimentally before clinical implementation. This work presents a new methodology to verify wall stress predicted from the numerical studies against the experimental testing. To this end, four AAA phantoms were manufactured using vacuum casting. The geometry of each phantom was subject to microcomputed tomography (μCT) scanning at zero and three other intraluminal pressures: 80, 100, and 120 mm Hg. A zero-pressure geometry algorithm was used to calculate the wall stress in the phantom, while the numerical wall stress was calculated with a finite-element analysis (FEA) solver based on the actual zero-pressure geometry subjected to 80, 100, and 120 mm Hg intraluminal pressure loading. Results demonstrate the moderate accuracy of this methodology with small relative differences in the average wall stress (1.14%). Additionally, the contribution of geometric factors to the wall stress distribution was statistically analyzed for the four phantoms. The results showed a significant correlation between wall thickness and mean curvature (MC) with wall stress.

Analysis and comparison of wrist splint designs using the finite element method: Multi-material three-dimensional printing compared to typical existing practice with thermoplastics:

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease affecting the joints. Treatment can include immobilisation of the affected joint with a custom-fitting splint, which is typically fabricated by hand from low temperature thermoplastic, but the approach poses several limitations. This study focused on the evaluation, by finite element analysis, of additive manufacturing techniques for wrist splints in order to improve upon the typical splinting approach. An additive manufactured/3D printed splint, specifically designed to be built using Objet Connex multi-material technology and a virtual model of a typical splint, digitised from a real patient-specific splint using three-dimensional scanning, were modelled in computer-aided design software. Forty finite element analysis simulations were performed in flexion–extension and radial–ulnar wrist movements to compare the displacements and the stresses. Simulations have shown that for low severity loads, the additive manufacturing splint has 25%, 76% and 27% less displacement in the main loading direction than the typical splint in flexion, extension and radial, respectively, while ulnar values were 75% lower in the traditional splint. For higher severity loads, the flexion and extension movements resulted in deflections that were 24% and 60%, respectively, lower in the additive manufacturing splint. However, for higher severity loading, the radial defection values were very similar in both splints and ulnar movement deflection was higher in the additive manufacturing splint. A physical prototype of the additive manufacturing splint was also manufactured and was tested under normal conditions to validate the finite element analysis data. Results from static tests showed maximum displacements of 3.46, 0.97, 3.53 and 2.51 mm flexion, extension, radial and ulnar directions, respectively. According to these results, the present research argues that from a technical point of view, the additive manufacturing splint design stands at the same or even better level of performance in displacements and stress values in comparison to the typical low temperature thermoplastic approach and is therefore a feasible approach to splint design and manufacture.

Anisotropic abdominal aortic aneurysm replicas with biaxial material characterization

An Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) is a permanent focal dilatation of the abdominal aorta at least 1.5 times its normal diameter. The criterion of maximum diameter is still used in clinical practice, although numerical studies have demonstrated the importance of other biomechanical factors. Numerical studies, however, must be validated experimentally before they can be clinically implemented. We have developed a methodology for manufacturing anisotropic AAA replicas with non-uniform wall thickness. Different composites were fabricated and tested, and one was selected in order to manufacture a phantom with the same properties. The composites and the phantom were characterized by biaxial tensile tests and a material model was fit to the experimental data. The experimental results were compared with data from the literature, and similar responses were obtained. The anisotropic AAA replicas with non-uniform wall thickness can be used in benchtop experiments to validate deformations obtained with numerical simulations or for pre-intervention testing of endovascular grafts. This is a significant step forward considering the importance of anisotropy in numerical simulations.

Pilot study describing the design process of an oil sump for a competition vehicle by combining additive manufacturing and carbon fibre layers

ABSTRACT Formula Student is an international competition governed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) which challenges university students to design and build a racing car that will subsequently be compared against other cars from universities around the world on homologated racing circuits by non-professional drivers. This study focuses on the design, analysis and manufacturing process of a new oil sump for a Formula Student car – which involves combining a main ABS-plastic core created by an additive manufacturing (AM) printing process and a manual lay-up process with carbon fibre – in order to reduce the sloshing effect due to the movement of the oil during racing. The new oil sump and the original sump were modelled with computer-aided design (CAD) software and five computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed to compare the sloshing effect in both designs in three driving scenarios: acceleration, braking and changing direction. The simulations showed that acceleration is not a critical situation since the new internal design of the sump was capable of delaying the immersion time of the oil pick-up pipe from 0.75 seconds to 2 seconds during braking and from 0.4 seconds to 0.8 seconds during lateral acceleration. The new design was physically manufactured and subsequently integrated into an internal combustion engine for testing for 45 minutes. During this test, the engine was started and put at 9600 RPM, so the oil worked under realistic temperature conditions (80°C). It did not present any oil leak. After testing, it was disassembled and visually inspected. No failure in the inner surfaces of the oil sump was observed due to temperature. According to these results, the present research argues that the combination of AM technology (i.e., fused deposition modelling) and layers of carbon fibre is a real alternative to conventional manufacturing processes in order to create geometrically complex oil sumps that minimise the sloshing effect in competition automobiles.

Head Injuries due to Unrestrained Objects during Frontal Collisions

This paper evaluates the consequences of the impact of an unrestrained object against the head of vehicle occupant during a frontal crash by means of a computational head–neck biomechanical model. The correct positioning of head restraints can partially protect the rear side of the head, but there is still a significant probability of being injured. However, because head restraints are typically not properly adjusted as whiplash studies have shown, the probability of being impacted by an unrestrained object during a frontal crash is noticeably high and hence the risk of being injured is also high. In this work, head injury risk is evaluated through the Head Injury Criterion (HIC), by simulating a complete head–neck biomechanical model with realistic motion under frontal crash condition. The model developed includes all cervical vertebrae, intervertebral discs, ligaments and muscles. The model was validated against experimental data. Results have shown that the risk of severe head injury in frontal collision due to unrestrained objects cannot be neglected. The risk is directly related to the mass of the impact object, the relative velocity between the object and the head and the incorrect use of the head restraint.

A head-neck biomechanical model of a 6-year-old child for frontal crash studies

The objective of this research is the development of a detailed computational model describing the kinematic and dynamic behaviour of a 6-year-old child head-neck group in frontal crash situations without head contact. The child model was scaled down from a previous biomechanical adult head-neck group. Three validation processes were performed. Firstly, the head centre of gravity acceleration was validated against the response of the head-neck group of MADYMO® Hybrid III 6-year-old dummy during a frontal crash. Secondly, the head centre of gravity displacement was validated against the scaled response of adult volunteers during a frontal crash. Finally, the occipital condylar moment was compared against the biofidelity requirements for Hybrid III 6-year-old dummy during the pendulum calibration test. Results showed good correlation between the response of the child model and both validation subjects, the child dummy and the scaled response of adult volunteers.

A methodology for developing anisotropic AAA phantoms via additive manufacturing

An Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) is a permanent focal dilatation of the abdominal aorta at least 1.5 times its normal diameter. The criterion of maximum diameter is still used in clinical practice, although numerical studies have demonstrated the importance of biomechanical factors for rupture risk assessment. AAA phantoms could be used for experimental validation of the numerical studies and for pre-intervention testing of endovascular grafts. We have applied multi-material 3D printing technology to manufacture idealized AAA phantoms with anisotropic mechanical behavior. Different composites were fabricated and the phantom specimens were characterized by biaxial tensile tests while using a constitutive model to fit the experimental data. One composite was chosen to manufacture the phantom based on having the same mechanical properties as those reported in the literature for human AAA tissue; the strain energy and anisotropic index were compared to make this choice. The materials for the matrix and fibers of the selected composite are, respectively, the digital materials FLX9940 and FLX9960 developed by Stratasys. The fiber proportion for the composite is equal to 0.15. The differences between the composite behavior and the AAA tissue are small, with a small difference in the strain energy (0.4%) and a maximum difference of 12.4% in the peak Green strain ratio. This work represents a step forward in the application of 3D printing technology for the manufacturing of AAA phantoms with anisotropic mechanical behavior.