Ajith Kumar

Exudativory in the Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, Tripura, northeast India

In this study we estimated the extent of exudativory in Nycticebus bengalensis and examined whether exudates can be considered as fallback foods. This study was carried out in Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary, northeastern India, in winter (December–February) and summer (March and April). We estimated time–activity budget using instantaneous sampling and used continuous focal animal sampling to record all instances and durations of feeding, over a total of 177 hr. Feeding accounted for 22.3±2.2% of the activity budget, with no seasonal difference. Bengal slow lorises fed on exudates, nectar, fruit, bark, invertebrates and avian eggs. In addition to scraping they also obtained exudates by gouging holes into the bark of trees. In winter, lorises almost exclusively fed on exudates (94.3% of winter feeding time). In summer, exudates (67.3%) and nectar from one species (22.3%) dominated the diet. This study identifies the Bengal slow loris as the most exudativorous loris. Exudates rather than being a staple fallback food, seem to be a preferred, patchily distributed and common food in the diet of the Bengal slow loris. Exudativory in this species is characterized by high selectivity among species and seasonal variation, which may be related to variations in productivity of exudates and their chemical composition. An understanding of these factors is necessary for predicting the response of this species to human disturbance such as logging. This study also underscores the importance of protecting some of the common species such as Terminalia belerica on which the loris feeds during periods of scarcity. Am. J. Primatol. 72:113–121, 2010.

Human Presence Increases Parasitic Load in Endangered Lion-Tailed Macaques ( Macaca silenus ) in Its Fragmented Rainforest Habitats in Southern India

Background Understanding changes in the host-parasite relationship due to habitat fragmentation is necessary for better management and conservation of endangered species in fragmented landscapes. Pathogens and parasites can pose severe threat to species in restricted environments such as forest fragments where there is increased contact of wildlife with human and livestock populations. Environmental stress and reduced nutritional level in forest fragments can influence parasite infection and intensity on the native species. In this study, we examine the impact of habitat fragmentation on the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in lion-tailed macaques in a fragmented rainforest in Western Ghats. Methods The prevalence of different gastrointestinal parasites was estimated from 91 fecal samples collected from 9 lion-tailed macaque groups in nine forest fragments. The parasites were identified up to genus level on the basis of the morphology and coloration of the egg, larva and cyst. The covariates included forest fragment area, group size and the presence/absence of human settlements and livestock in proximity. We used a linear regression model to identify the covariates that significantly influenced the prevalence of different parasite taxa. Results Nine gastrointestinal parasite taxa were detected in lion-tailed macaque groups. The groups near human settlements had greater prevalence and number of taxa, and these variables also had significant positive correlations with group size. We found that these parameters were also greater in groups near human settlements after controlling for group size. Livestock were present in all five fragments that had human settlements in proximity. Conclusion The present study suggests that high prevalence and species richness of gastrointestinal parasites in lion-tailed macaque groups are directly related to habitat fragmentation, high anthropogenic activities and high host density. The parasite load partially explains the reason for the decline in immature survival and birth rate in small and isolated rainforest fragments in Anamalai Hills.

Winter ecology of the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala in Pangchen Valley, western Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India

The newly described Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala occurs largely in sub‐tropical to temperate environments at elevations of c. 1,800–3,000 m in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. We studied its over‐wintering strategy by comparing the diet, ranging, and behavior of a troop of 24 individuals during winter and spring (December 2005 to May 2006) through instantaneous scan sampling (3,002 records, 448 scans, 112 hr of observation). We also monitored the phenology of food plants. The macaques spent more time (41–66%) feeding in the winter than in spring (33–51%), whereas time spent moving and resting was greater in spring. The diet composed largely of plants, with animal matter being eaten rarely. The number of plant species in the diet increased from 18 to 25 whereas food types rose from 18 to 36 from winter to spring, respectively. Although only two species formed 75% of the winter diet, seven species comprised this proportion in spring. Availability of fruits and young leaves increased in spring; the troop moved more and utilized a larger part of its range during this time. Seasonal changes in behavior could be explained by the scarcity of food and the costs of thermoregulation in winter. Our study suggests that the Arunachal macaque inhabits a highly seasonal environment and has an over‐wintering strategy that includes subsisting on a high‐fiber diet by increasing the time spent feeding, and minimizing energy expenditure by reducing the time spent moving. Am. J. Primatol. 71:939–947, 2009.

Pre-Historic and Recent Vicariance Events Shape Genetic Structure and Diversity in Endangered Lion-Tailed Macaque in the Western Ghats: Implications for Conservation

Genetic isolation of populations is a potent force that helps shape the course of evolution. However, small populations in isolation, especially in fragmented landscapes, are known to lose genetic variability, suffer from inbreeding depression and become genetically differentiated among themselves. In this study, we assessed the genetic diversity of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) inhabiting the fragmented landscape of Anamalai hills and examined the genetic structure of the species across its distributional range in the Western Ghats. We sequenced around 900 bases of DNA covering two mitochondrial regions–hypervariable region-I and partial mitochondrial cytochrome b–from individuals sampled both from wild and captivity, constructed and dated phylogenetic trees. We found that the lion-tailed macaque troops in the isolated forest patches in Anamalai hills have depleted mitochondrial DNA diversity compared to troops in larger and continuous forests. Our results also revealed an ancient divergence in the lion-tailed macaque into two distinct populations across the Palghat gap, dating to 2.11 million years ago. In light of our findings, we make a few suggestions on the management of wild and captive populations.

The response of the frugivorous lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) to a period of fruit scarcity.

Tropical rainforests show seasonal fluctuations in the abundance of fruits resulting in periods of resource scarcity for frugivores. We examined the response of an obligate frugivore, the lion‐tailed macaque (LTM) (Macaca silenus), to a period of fruit scarcity in a rainforest in the Western Ghats, India. We estimated the abundance and distribution of fruit resources from food tree densities obtained from 348 point centered quadrats, and fruit availability from phenological monitoring of 195 trees of 15 reported major food species. Macronutrient content was estimated for fruits of 15 major food species. We estimated time spent feeding on different food items from 1,853 individual scans spanning 120 hr of observation of one habituated study group. There was a distinct period of fruit scarcity during the drier months of February to mid‐March (Period 1) compared with late March and April (Period 2), separated by summer showers. Fruits available in Period 1 had lower soluble carbohydrate and lipid content and overall caloric value compared with Period 2. During the lean period, the LTM fed more on fruits of Drypetes wightii, which had the highest carbohydrate content, than on nectar of Palaquium ellipticum or Ficus spp., which had low carbohydrate content. During this period, the resource availability in a location significantly influenced the occurrence of feeding there. In Period 2, the group fed most on the seeds of Cullenia exarillata, the most abundant tree in the home‐range and with the highest content of soluble carbohydrates. During this period, the abundance of food trees in fruit in a location did not seem to influence the occurrence of feeding. Low abundance, stochastic fruiting and, low quality might make Ficus spp. a poor fallback option for the LTM. Am. J. Primatol. 73:1250–1260, 2011.

Resource distribution and group size in the common langur Semnopithecus entellus in southern India.

We investigated the influence of resource abundance and distribution on the group size and composition of the common langur Semnopithecus entellus in the contiguous forests of Bandipur National Park, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and Nagarahole National Park in southern India. We also explored any additional effect of predator pressure and the risk of take‐over on the same attributes. Data on group composition and vegetation were collected from January to May 2006. The size and composition of 94 bisexual groups were obtained. The group size varied from 7 to 40 and the groups included unimale and multimale groups. Thirty‐five all‐male groups were encountered. Vegetation was sampled from 17 grids of dimension 1 km × 1 km, each containing twelve 25 m × 25 m plots. The list of food species was compiled from previous studies and observations made during the study period. The mean basal area of all the food trees within each plot and its coefficient of variation at the level of the grid were used to represent resource abundance and distribution, respectively. The number of adult females and males within groups were analyzed separately to test for differential effects on age–sex categories. Group size increased as resources became spatially more heterogeneous. The abundance of resources had a negative effect on group size. This study did not find evidence supporting the direct effect of predator presence or of the risk of take‐over. Contrary to what were expected, adult males reacted more strongly and predictably to resources than did adult females. The group attributes and their relationship with food resource abundance and distribution differed between two sites in the study area possibly owing to langur subspecies differences. Am. J. Primatol. 70:680–689, 2008.

Wild Ungulate Decision-Making and the Role of Tiny Refuges in Human-Dominated Landscapes.

Wildlife conservation in human-dominated landscapes requires that we understand how animals, when making habitat-use decisions, obtain diverse and dynamically occurring resources while avoiding risks, induced by both natural predators and anthropogenic threats. Little is known about the underlying processes that enable wild animals to persist in densely populated human-dominated landscapes, particularly in developing countries. In a complex, semi-arid, fragmented, human-dominated agricultural landscape, we analyzed the habitat-use of blackbuck, a large herbivore endemic to the Indian sub-continent. We hypothesized that blackbuck would show flexible habitat-use behaviour and be risk averse when resource quality in the landscape is high, and less sensitive to risk otherwise. Overall, blackbuck appeared to be strongly influenced by human activity and they offset risks by using small protected patches (~3 km2) when they could afford to do so. Blackbuck habitat use varied dynamically corresponding with seasonally-changing levels of resources and risks, with protected habitats registering maximum use. The findings show that human activities can strongly influence and perhaps limit ungulate habitat-use and behaviour, but spatial heterogeneity in risk, particularly the presence of refuges, can allow ungulates to persist in landscapes with high human and livestock densities.

Habitat Determinants of Woodpecker Abundance and Species Richness in Sub-Himalayan Dipterocarp Forests of North-West India

Abstract. Ecological impacts of habitat change on woodpeckers remain largely unstudied in regions other than Europe and North America. The sub-Himalayan sal Shorea robusta forests of northwest India have 17 woodpecker species, and a history of management-induced habitat modification. We studied how habitat parameters affect woodpeckers at a community level (viz. total abundance and species richness) as well as at individual species level. We assessed woodpecker abundance, species richness and described habitat features at 8 sites representing a gradient of structure and composition in a sal-dominated landscape. We surveyed each site in 2-km-long transects 20 times over breeding and non-breeding seasons and evaluated habitat characteristics in 10 circular and belt plots. We analysed woodpecker abundance, species richness, and abundance of individual species as functions of habitat variables and season. Woodpecker encounter rates and mean species richness, respectively, ranged from 1.5 to 10.0 birds/km and 1.7 to 6.9 species per survey at individual sites. Distance-based estimates of densities for the most frequently-observed species were also obtained. Basal area (large trees) and density of snags positively influenced total woodpecker abundance and species richness, with snags being more important during breeding season. Basal area was important for Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus, Grey-faced Woodpecker Picus canus, Fulvous-breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos macei and Lesser Yellownape Picus chlorolophus. Snags, tree density, tree diameter and termitarium density appeared to affect Greycapped Pygmy Woodpecker Dendrocopos canicapillus, Black-rumped Flameback Dinopium benghalense, Himalayan Flameback Dinopium shorii and Streak-throated Woodpecker Picus xanthopygaeus. Hence, for the conservation of native woodpecker communities in sal forests, it is necessary to retain large trees and standing dead wood.

Enhancing conservation science capacity in India: first decade of the Master's programme in wildlife biology and conservation

India is a mega biodiverse country but, with a human population of 1.2 billion and aspirations for further economic growth, conservation of this biodiversity faces huge challenges. A decade ago, identifying the need for strong academic programmes to train conservation professionals, the Wildlife Conservation Society collaborated with the National Centre for Biological Sciences of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research to initiate a Masters degree programme in wildlife biology and conservation, comprising cutting-edge course modules taught by practising scientists and conservationists, followed by a dissertation. The programme trains a cohort of 15 students every 2 years, and the fifth cohort graduated in September 2014. In all, 74 budding conservationists have graduated in the programmes first decade. Their field research has spanned multiple species and ecosystems in 20 Indian states, and alumni of the course now form the core of many academic and conservation institutions. The alumni have engaged in practical conservation initiatives, driving both policy and practice in India by setting high standards of research and science-based conservation. The sixth cohort of 15 students began their training in July 2014.