Akiko Terada-Hagiwara

Infrastructure and Growth in Developing Asia

This paper applies two distinct approaches—growth regressions and growth accounting—to analyze the link between infrastructure, growth, and productivity in developing Asian countries. The main conclusion is that a number of countries in developing Asia have significantly improved their basic infrastructure endowments in the recent past. This improvement appears to correlate significantly with good growth performances. However, the evidence seems to indicate that this is mostly the result of factor accumulation, a direct effect, and that the impact on productivity is rather inconclusive.

Saving in Asia: Issues for Rebalancing Growth

This paper assesses the role of consumption and saving in Asia’s growth. It examines the composition of national saving, analyzes what forces drive saving rates, and draws policy conclusions from the analysis that are relevant for the economies in the region and which might play an important part in rebalancing global growth. The paper identifies a number of issues. A rapid rise in the profitability of state-owned and private enterprises together with distorted dividend policies and underdeveloped financial markets in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) seem to have contributed to the corporate sector saving spiral. Rising corporate saving rates in India can be attributed to lower corporate tax rates, customs duty, and interest rates along with restructuring of firms. Channeling corporate saving into investment will require elimination of policy distortions and financial sector development including availability of better saving instruments and improved business and investment climates. At the household level, demographic trends, financial development, and precautionary saving are revealed to be important for Asian savers. Two case studies from the PRC and Philippines suggest that these factors are interrelated and complement one another. The surge in urban households’ saving in the PRC has two main drivers. First, younger households lack access to credit and accumulate savings in order to purchase durable goods such as televisions, white goods, and automobiles. Second, most urban households undertake precautionary saving as a hedge against risks of illness or other healthcare expenses and in order to finance educational expenses. Hence policies that develop financial markets enabling borrowing against future income, and that rationalize public spending to increase social transfers, reform pension systems, and provide universal health care insurance and education, appear top priorities. These policies would moderate household saving rates and help in rebalancing growth toward consumption.

A Survey on the Relationship between Education and Growth with Implications for Developing Asia

This paper surveys the empirical and theoretical link between education and growth in the growth process of Asian countries. Particular attention is paid to the link between education and productivity, and to models that characterize key features of growth processes of Asian countries. Empirical studies show that these key features include: risk of falling into poverty traps, focussing more on technology adoption rather than creation, and possible technology–skill mismatch. The surveyed studies provide policy implications for each of these features. For instance, to avoid the poverty trap and for efficient adoption of technologies, accumulation of human capital — specifically general human capital — and width of human capital are crucial. To avoid the technology–skill mismatch, the speed of technology upgrading should be appropriate to take full advantage of learning-by-doing and the earning potential of the current stock of specific human capital.

Explaining Filipino Households’ Declining Saving Rate

From 1994 to 2006, the average household saving rate in the Philippines declined by 5.2 percentage points to about a mere 5% of disposable income. Using data from income and expenditure survey at the household level, this paper explains why households’ consumption growth had been higher than income growth during this period. Tracing cohorts shows that saving declined across all demographic groups. A simple test that provides the strength of the precautionary saving motive yields a plausible explanation that households are financially constrained and less prudent in the recent years. This paper argues that these patterns are best explained by the extended coverage of social security system during the 1990s in the Philippines. Less prudent behavior may have been amplified by the severe financial constraint leading to the sharp fall in the saving rate.

What Makes Developing Asia Resilient in a Financially Globalized World

The pullbacks of capital inflows to developing Asia following the onset of the global financial crisis in 2008 have brought renewed attention to the role and benefits of financial globalization. A number of notable distinctions between the current global crisis and the Asian financial crisis have become evident. Solid domestic institutions, especially in the financial sector; swift policy responses; and a sound macroeconomic environment with adequate reserves have helped the region to manage well the adverse impacts of the global crisis. Empirical analysis examining the link between capital account openness and output volatility reveals that a developing country with a more open capital market tends to experience lower output volatility, contrary to what might be expected. It is also found that countries can mitigate the destabilizing effect of pursuing greater exchange rate stability by holding a sufficiently high level of foreign reserves. Furthermore, if they want to reap the benefit of financial liberalization to reduce output volatility, highly integrated economies need to be equipped with highly developed financial markets, particularly of banking and stock markets.

Absorptive Capacity and the Impact of Commodity Terms of Trade Shocks in Resource Export-Dependent Economies

This paper investigates the role of “absorptive capacity” to manage unexpected shocks to their real economy, with a focus on small, open, natural resource-dependent economies. A quarterly panel data series for 45 countries is constructed, including 23 developing Asian countries for empirical investigation. For the entire sample, the analysis finds that absorptive capacity, choice of exchange rate regime, presence of wealth funds, level of foreign reserves, or degree of resource dependency alone, does not matter when real shocks are introduced to output. However, levels of absorptive capacity or ability to use resource windfalls effectively, and foreign reserves begin to matter when the sample is restricted to resource-dependent countries. Case studies from Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste support this claim highlighting the challenges they face with a sudden influx of natural resource revenues when capacity to effectively use fiscal revenues is limited.

The Impact of Pre-Marital Sex Ratios on Household Saving in Two Asian Countries: The Competitive Saving Motive Revisited

This paper estimates a household saving rate equation for India and Korea using long-term time series data for the 1975-2010 period, focusing in particular on the impact of the pre-marital sex ratio on the household saving rate. To summarize the main findings of the paper, it finds that the pre-marital sex (or gender) ratio (the ratio of males to females) has a significant impact on the household saving rate in both India and Korea, even after controlling for the usual suspects such as the aged and youth dependency ratios and income. It has a negative impact in India, where the bride’s side has to pay substantial dowries to the groom’s side at marriage, but a positive impact in Korea, where, as in China, the groom’s side has to bear a disproportionate share of marriage-related expenses including purchasing a house or condominium for the newlywed couple.

Explaining Foreign Holdings of Asia's Debt Securities: The Feldstein-Horioka Paradox Revisited

In this paper, we analyze data on trends since 2000 in foreign holdings of government securities and other debt securities, with emphasis on Japan and developing Asia. We find that foreign residents generally increased their holdings of Asian debt securities during the sample period and in particular during the post-global financial crisis (GFC) period. Meanwhile, foreign holdings of debt securities have been declining in the eurozone. Foreign holdings of short-term debt securities were very volatile during the GFC period (2009–11), with a sharp drop in foreign holdings of short-term Asian debt securities that was followed by a renewed surge. Our empirical analysis suggests that despite the increase in foreign holdings of debt securities its share is still far lower than the optimal portfolio warranted by the capital asset pricing market theory. In other words, foreign investors’ home bias is still strong. The overall increase in foreign holdings of Asian debt securities appears to be driven by relatively stable exchange rates and the higher risk-adjusted returns on the debt securities of the region. Additionally, we find that investors were more “home-biased” during the GFC period and invested less in the markets of the major industrialized economies.