Alain Brechbühl

Dynamics of critical incidents with potentially violent outcomes involving ultra fans: an explorative study

Abstract This study examines incidents involving a tense atmosphere combined with higher risk of football fan violence. A systematic description of such critical incidents (CIs) identifying their risk factors and warning signs is yet lacking. This study looks beyond fans’ violent acts per se and focuses on CIs involving ultra fans with a potentially – but not necessarily – violent outcome. A preliminary study involving a focus group was conducted followed by a main study including eight case studies. The focus group comprised five professionals working with football fans who discussed CIs’ observable characteristics. Risk factors and warning signs were coded using content analysis, such as, ‘arrest of a fan’. In the main study, people involved in actual CIs were interviewed to explore these phenomena in more depth. An integrated model of CIs’ dynamics, risk factors and warning signs was compiled using data gathered in both studies.

Escalation vs. non-escalation of fan violence in football? Narratives from ultra fans, police officers and security employees

Abstract Despite a large body of literature about fan violence issues, research investigating perceptions and dynamics in potentially violent situations, called critical incidents (CIs), is missing. This qualitative study examined the perceptions and dynamics of CIs involving ultra football fans. Fifty-nine semi-structured interviews with individuals (fans, police officers or security employees) involved in eight CIs were conducted and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The assessment of legitimacy of an out-group’s actions strongly influenced the perception of a CI, which is in line with the Elaborated Social Identity Model. Informative intergroup communication about the own intentions seemed to increase perception of legitimacy, while arrests of fans due to pyrotechnics were perceived by fans as illegitimate. The local fan culture, e.g. the fans’ use of pyrotechnics for their support, is relevant for the understanding of this assessment of legitimacy.

Evaluation of an inventory for the assessment of critical incidents involving football fans

Introduction: Fan violence is a frequent occurrence in Swiss football (Bundesamt fur Polizei, 2015) leading to high costs for prevention and control (Mensch & Maurer, 2014). Various theories put forward an explanation of fan violence, such as the Elaborated Social Identity Model (Drury & Reicher, 2000)and the Aggravation Mitigation Model (Hylander & Guva, 2010). Important observations from these theories are the multi-dimensional understanding of fan violence and the Dynamics occurring in the fan group. Nevertheless, none of them deal with critical incidents (CIs) which involve a tense atmosphere combined with a higher risk of fan violence. Schumacher Dimech, Brechbuhl and Seiler (2015) tackled this gap in research and explored CIs where 43 defining criteria were identified and compiled in an integrated model of CIs. The defining criteria were categorised in four higher-order themes “antecedents” (e.g. a documented history of fan rivalry), “triggers” (e.g. the arrest of a fan), “reactions” (e.g. fans masking themselves) and “consequences” (e.g. fans avoiding communication with fan social workers). Methods: An inventory based on this model is being developed including these 43 criteria. In an exploratory phase, this inventory was presented as an online questionnaire and was completed by 143 individuals. Three main questions are examined: Firstly, the individual items are tested using descriptive analyses. An item analysis is conducted to test reliability, item difficulty and discriminatory power. Secondly, the model’s four higher-order themes are tested using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Thirdly, differences between sub -groups are explored, such as gender and age-related differences. Results: Respondents rated the items’ importance as high and the quota of incomplete responses was not systematic. Two items were removed from the inventory because of low mean or a high rate of “don’t know”-responses. EFA produced a six-factor solution grouping items into match-related factors, repressive measures, fans’ delinquent behaviour, intra-group behaviour, communication and control and inter-group factors. The item “fans consume alcohol” could not be ordered into any category but was retained since literature accentuates this factor’s influence on fan violence. Analyses examining possible differences between groups are underway. Discussion: Results exploring the adequacy of this inventory assessing defining criteria of CIs in football are promising and thus further evaluative investigation is recommended. This inventory can be used in two ways: as a standardised instrument of assessment for experts evaluating specific CIs and as an instrument for exploring differences in perception and assessment of a CI e.g. gender and age differences, differences between interest groups and stakeholders.

„Knallt‘s oder knallt‘s nicht?" - Dynamik der Gewalteskalation am Beispiel des Fussballstadions

Dynamik der Gewalteskalation bei kritischen Situationen am Beispiel des Fusballstadions Alain Brechbuhl, Annemarie Schumacher-Dimech & Roland Seiler Institut fur Sportwissenschaft, Universitat Bern Schlusselworter: Zuschauergewalt, Wahrnehmung, Fusball, Massenveranstaltungen, Fan Einleitung Zuschauergewalt bei Fusballspielen ist in der Schweiz ein aktuelles Thema, wie etwa politische Debatten um Masnahmen zur Pravention von Eskalationen zeigen. Wahrend in anderen Landern bereits verschiedene Studien durchgefuhrt wurden (bspw. Hylander & Granstrom, 2010), existiert in der Schweiz kaum Forschung zur Dynamik und den moglichen Faktoren, die den Unterschied zwischen einer Eskalation oder Nichteskalation ausmachen konnten. Insbesondere die Sicht beteiligter Personen ist dazu von entscheidender Bedeutung. Das vorliegende Projekt beschaftigt sich mit der subjektiv wahrgenommenen Gewaltsituation und deren zentralen Faktoren und Ursachen im Kontext des Fusballs. Methode Aufgrund der sparlichen Forschungslage in der Schweiz wurde eine explorative qualitative Studie mit involvierten und nichtinvolvierten Personen (Fusballfans, Sicherheitspersonal und die Polizei) durchgefuhrt, um Daten uber kritische Situationen bei Spielen der Raiffeisen Super League zu erheben. Die ausgewahlten Personen wurden einzeln mit narrativen Interviews zu der erlebten Situation befragt um genauere Erkenntnisse zur Situation zu erhalten. Zu vier Situationen wurden 34 Interviews durchgefuhrt (12 mit Polizeiangehorigen, 11 mit Fans, 9 mit Fanarbeitern und 2 mit Sicherheitsarbeitern). Die Auswertung erfolgte mit der interpretativen phanomenologischen Analyse. Ergebnisse Es zeigten sich individuelle und gruppenspezifische Wahrnehmungen in kritischen Situationen. Bei den befragten Personen herrschte haufig eine Tendenz zur (negativen) Stereotypisierung der gegenuberstehenden Gruppenmitglieder. Schnelle und klare Kommunikation, genugend Distanz zwischen den Gruppen und das Entfernen von gruppenspezifisch bedrohlichen Hinweisreizen (bspw. Polizei-Rustungen) konnten als relevante Faktoren fur gewaltfreie Losungen festgestellt werden. Diskussion Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse sprechen fur die Aufrechterhaltung einer differenzierten Betrachtungsweise und das Beiziehen von Vermittlungspersonen (von Fan- wie auch Polizeiseite) in kritischen Situationen, um Eskalationen vermeiden zu konnen. Es zeigen sich Ahnlichkeiten zu den Ergebnissen von Hylander & Granstrom (2010). Es werden noch weitere kritische Situationen analysiert, um konkrete Praxisempfehlungen zu formulieren. Literatur Hylander, I., & Granstrom, K. (2010). Organizing for a peaceful crowd: an example of a football match. Fo-rum Qualitative Social Research, 11 (2), Zugriff am 22.01.2014 unter http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1462/2969.