Alain De Beuckelaer

Editorial: Measurement Invariance

Multi-item surveys are frequently used to study scores on latent factors, like human values, attitudes, and behavior. Such studies often include a comparison, between specific groups of individuals or residents of different countries, either at one or multiple points in time (i.e., a cross-sectional or a longitudinal comparison or both). If latent factor means are to be meaningfully compared, the measurement structures of the latent factor and their survey items should be stable, that is “invariant.” As proposed by Mellenbergh (1989), “measurement invariance” (MI) requires that the association between the items (or test scores) and the latent factors (or latent traits) of individuals should not depend on group membership or measurement occasion (i.e., time). In other words, if item scores are (approximately) multivariate normally distributed, conditional on the latent factor scores, the expected values, the covariances between items, and the unexplained variance unrelated to the latent factors should be equal across groups. Many studies examining MI of survey scales have shown that the MI assumption is very hard to meet. In particular, strict forms of MI rarely hold. With “strict” we refer to a situation in which measurement parameters are exactly the same across groups or measurement occasions, that is an enforcement of zero tolerance with respect to deviations between groups or measurement occasions. Often, researchers just ignore MI issues and compare latent factor means across groups or measurement occasions even though the psychometric basis for such a practice does not hold. However, when a strict form of MI is not established and one must conclude that respondents attach different meanings to survey items, this makes it impossible to make valid comparisons between latent factor means. As such, the potential bias caused by measurement non-invariance obstructs the comparison of latent factor means (if strict MI does not hold) or regression coefficients (if less strict forms of MI do not hold). Traditionally, MI is tested for in a multiple group confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) with groups defined by unordered categorical (i.e., nominal) between-subject variables. In MGCFA, MI is tested at each constraint of the latent factor model using a series of nested (latent) factor models. This traditional way of testing for MI originated with Joreskog (1971), who was the first scholar to thoroughly discuss the invariance of latent factor (or measurement) structures. Additionally, Sorbom (1974, 1978) pioneered the specification and estimation of latent factor means using a multi-group SEM approach in LISREL (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996). Following these contributions the multi-group specification of latent factor structures has become widespread in all major SEM software programs (e.g., AMOS Arbuckle, 2006, EQS Bender and Wu, 1995, LAVAAN Rosseel, 2012, Mplus Muthen and Muthen, 2013, STATA STATA, 2015, and OpenMx Boker et al., 2011). Shortly thereafter, Byrne et al. (1989) introduced the distinction between full and partial MI. Although their introduction was of great value, the first formal treatment of different forms of MI and their consequences for the validity of multi-group/multi-time comparisons is attributable to Meredith (1993). So far, a tremendous amount of papers dealing with MI have been published. The literature on MI published in the 20th century is nicely summarized by Vandenberg and Lance (2000). Noteworthy is also the overview of applications in cross-cultural studies provided by Davidov et al. (2014), as well as a recent book by Millsap (2011) containing a general systematic treatment of the topic of MI. The traditional MGCFA approach to MI-testing is described by, for example, Byrne (2004), Chen et al. (2005), Gregorich (2006), van de Schoot et al. (2012), Vandenberg (2002) and Wicherts and Dolan (2010). Researchers entering the field of MI are recommended to first consult Meredith (1993) and Millsap (2011) before reading other valuable academic works. Recent developments in statistics have provided new analytical tools for assessing MI. The aim of this special issue is to provide a forum for a discussion of MI, covering some crucial “themes”: (1) ways to assess and deal with measurement non-invariance; (2) Bayesian and IRT methods employing the concept of approximate MI; and (3) new or adjusted approaches for testing MI to fit increasingly complex statistical models and specific characteristics of survey data.

Small sample surveys: increasing rigor in supply chain management research

Purpose – Attaining high response rates in survey‐based supply chain management (SCM) research is becoming increasingly difficult, but small samples can limit the reliability and validity of empirical research findings. The purpose of this article is to analyze the status quo and provide a discussion of methodological issues related to the use of small samples in SCM research.Design/methodology/approach – An in‐depth review of 75 small sample survey studies published between 1998 and 2007 in three journals in the field that frequently publish survey‐based research papers (TJ, IJPDLM, and JBL) was conducted, and key characteristics of these studies were compared with the characteristics from 44 small sample survey studies published in leading operations management (JOM) and management (AMJ) journals.Findings – The review of papers published in TJ, IJPDLM, and JBL shows that small samples are frequently used in SCM research. This study provides an overview of current practices, opportunities for improvement...

Keep the fire burning: Reciprocal gains of basic need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and innovative work behaviour

Drawing on insights from self-determination theory, we explored the dynamic relationship between intrinsic motivation and innovative work behaviour (IWB) over time. Specifically, we investigated how basic need satisfaction influences IWB through its effect on intrinsic motivation and how IWB in turn affects basic need satisfaction as measured the next day (i.e., a reciprocal relationship). The current study used a longitudinal design comprising a 6-day period and relied on multi-source data from 76 students in industrial product design and electronic engineering who participated in an innovation boot camp. In general, results provided support for the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in the relationship between basic need satisfaction and IWB, as well as the reciprocal relationship between basic need satisfaction and IWB.

The Role of Faculty Members' Cross-Cultural Competencies in Their Perceived Teaching Quality: Evidence from Culturally-Diverse Classes in Four European Countries

In the field of higher education, it has often been claimed that in culturally-diverse classes high levels of cross-cultural competence will result in better teaching performance among faculty. Unfortunately, to date this relationship has not been tested empirically. In this study, we examine the nature of this relationship using course-related survey data from faculty members (N = 46) teaching management-related courses to master’s students (N = 1,219) in four EU countries (Belgium, France, Germany, and The Netherlands). Results demonstrate that cross-cultural competence (in particular showing a high degree of cultural empathy and being open-minded) is an important asset for faculty members whenever the educational program relies on (frequent) interactions between faculty members and students.

Discriminant validity where there should be none. Positioning same-scale items in separated blocks of a questionnaire

In questionnaires, items can be presented in a grouped format (same-scale items are presented in the same block) or in a randomized format (items from one scale are mixed with items from other scales). Some researchers have advocated the grouped format because it enhances discriminant validity. The current study demonstrates that positioning items in separate blocks of a questionnaire may indeed lead to increased discriminant validity, but this can happen even in instances where discriminant validity should not be present. In particular, the authors show that splitting an established unidimensional scale into two arbitrary blocks of items separated by unrelated buffer items results in the emergence of two clearly identifiable but artificial factors that show discriminant validity.

Eye movement evidence of the time-course of attentional bias for threatening pictures in test-anxious students

ABSTRACT Protocols for measuring attentional bias to threat in test-anxiety, a special form of trait-anxiety, are rarely found in the literature. In our eye-tracking study, we introduced a new protocol, and studied the time-course of attention to test-related pictures with varying threat levels in 22 high test-anxious (HTA) and 22 low test-anxious (LTA) subjects. To determine whether attentional bias to test-related pictures is due to test-anxiety and not to state-anxiety, we also included a third group of 22 subjects with high state-anxiety but low test-anxiety (HSA). The subjects completed a free viewing task (FVT) in which high threat-neutral (HT-N) and low threat-neutral (LT-N) picture pairs were presented for 3 s. The results demonstrated that: (1) HTA subjects showed initial orienting to LT pictures, early attentional engagement with HT pictures later on and avoidance of HT pictures at the very end; (2) LTA subjects showed initial orienting to HT pictures and maintenance of attention on them later on; while (3) HSA subjects showed an initial orientation towards LT pictures and maintenance of attention on LT and HT pictures later on. These results suggest that, (high) test-anxiety is also prone to attentional bias towards test-related threat stimuli. Implications for future research are discussed.

When Passion Fades: Disentangling the Temporal Dynamics of Entrepreneurial Passion for Founding

This study examines how and why entrepreneurial passion for founding changes over time. In particular, we propose that in the founding phase of a ventures lifecycle entrepreneurs’ founding identity centrality will remain stable over time. We also propose, however, that in our sample and time period studied, entrepreneurs’ intense positive feelings for founding will decrease over time. On the basis of theories of positive illusion, self-regulation and role theory, we further hypothesize that venture idea change, change in role ambiguity and entrepreneurs’ feedback-seeking behaviour are factors that help explain the rate of change in entrepreneurs’ intense positive feelings for founding. Using a three-wave longitudinal research design, we find that among a sample of 112 entrepreneurs’ identity centrality does not change over time, whereas intense positive feelings for founding decrease over time. Moreover, the more entrepreneurs change their venture ideas, the weaker their decrease in intense positive feelings. Further, we show that entrepreneurs who frequently seek feedback suffer less from reduced positive feelings in response to higher increases in role ambiguity as compared to entrepreneurs who seek less feedback.

When the fire dies: Perceived success and support for innovation shape the motivating potential of innovative work behaviour

In recent years, there seems to have grown a perspective in the literature that innovation will have uniformly positive outcomes for individuals and organizations. This is unfortunate as innovative individuals may not always experience the assumed positive motivational consequences of being innovative at work. Our study aims to examine under which conditions engaging in innovative work behaviour (IWB) may not leads to desired motivational outcomes. We conducted a longitudinal field study involving 100 industrial product design and electronic engineering students participating for 7 days in an innovation boot camp. In support of our hypotheses, we found that day-level IWB leads to higher basic need satisfaction at the subsequent day when perceived success and support for innovation were high. However, when these moderators were low, the hypothesized relationship became non-significant. Our study results yield useful suggestions for helping individuals in maintaining optimal motivation throughout innovation processes.

The Gray Matter Volume of the Amygdala Is Correlated with the Perception of Melodic Intervals: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study

Music is not simply a series of organized pitches, rhythms, and timbres, it is capable of evoking emotions. In the present study, voxel-based morphometry (VBM) was employed to explore the neural basis that may link music to emotion. To do this, we identified the neuroanatomical correlates of the ability to extract pitch interval size in a music segment (i.e., interval perception) in a large population of healthy young adults (N = 264). Behaviorally, we found that interval perception was correlated with daily emotional experiences, indicating the intrinsic link between music and emotion. Neurally, and as expected, we found that interval perception was positively correlated with the gray matter volume (GMV) of the bilateral temporal cortex. More important, a larger GMV of the bilateral amygdala was associated with better interval perception, suggesting that the amygdala, which is the neural substrate of emotional processing, is also involved in music processing. In sum, our study provides one of first neuroanatomical evidence on the association between the amygdala and music, which contributes to our understanding of exactly how music evokes emotional responses.

Distinct neural substrates of visuospatial and verbal-analytic reasoning as assessed by Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices

Recent studies revealed spontaneous neural activity to be associated with fluid intelligence (gF) which is commonly assessed by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices, and embeds two types of reasoning: visuospatial and verbal-analytic reasoning. With resting-state fMRI data, using global brain connectivity (GBC) analysis which averages functional connectivity of a voxel in relation to all other voxels in the brain, distinct neural correlates of these two reasoning types were found. For visuospatial reasoning, negative correlations were observed in both the primary visual cortex (PVC) and the precuneus, and positive correlations were observed in the temporal lobe. For verbal-analytic reasoning, negative correlations were observed in the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and temporoparietal junction, and positive correlations were observed in the angular gyrus. Furthermore, an interaction between GBC value and type of reasoning was found in the PVC, rIFG and the temporal lobe. These findings suggest that visuospatial reasoning benefits more from elaborate perception to stimulus features, whereas verbal-analytic reasoning benefits more from feature integration and hypothesis testing. In sum, the present study offers, for different types of reasoning in gF, first empirical evidence of separate neural substrates in the resting brain.