Alan J. Coelho

Perceived exertion and maximal quadriceps femoris muscle strength during dynamic knee extension exercise in young adult males and females

The objectives of the present study were to: (1) examine perceived exertion across different target voluntary-contraction intensities; (2) compare perceived exertion ratings with actual target intensities, and (3) compare perceived exertion ratings between males and females. Subjects for this study included 30 healthy, college-aged male (n=15) and female (n=15) volunteers. All subjects were free of orthopedic, cardiopulmonary, systemic and neurological disease. Subjects were evaluated for their one-repetition maximum (1-RM) during inertial knee extension exercise. All subjects then completed, in a random order, two sub-maximal inertial contractions at 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% of their 1-RM. Perceived exertion was measured by asking subjects to provide a number that corresponded to the feelings in their quadriceps after completion of the two repetitions, by viewing a modified category-ratio (CR-10) scale. The results showed that males lifted a significantly greater absolute (P<0.05) and relative (P<0.05) amount of mass than females; allometric-modeled strength values also demonstrated significant sex differences. The results revealed a significant intensity main effect (P<0.001) but no significant gender main effect (P=0.97) nor intensity-by-gender interactions (P=0.50) for the perceived exertion responses. The findings demonstrated that perceived exertion was significantly (P<0.05) lower than the specific expected values on the CR-10 scale from 10% to 60% of 1-RM, but was not different from 70% to 90% 1-RM. The results revealed that the increase in perceived exertion was fit to both linear and quadratic trends, and that the exponent of the power function was found to be 1.437 (SD 0.22) for the males, and 1.497 (0.295) for the females. The major findings demonstrate that although males were able to lift more absolute and relative mass than females, the perceptual response to relative load was similar between genders. The increase in perceived exertion, as a function of relative load, showed a strong linear trend; however, enhanced perceptual sensitivity at high contraction intensities was evident from the positively accelerating power function.

Activation linearity and parallelism of the superficial quadriceps across the isometric intensity spectrum.

The purpose of this study was to assess neuromuscular activation of the three superficial portions of the quadriceps femoris muscles during linearly increasing isometric contraction intensities. Thirty healthy volunteers were assessed for isometric electromyographic (EMG) activity of the vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL), and rectus femoris (RF) muscles with the knee at 60° of flexion. For 5 s, subjects performed isometric contractions equivalent to 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% of the average of three maximal voluntary contractions (MVC), in random order. Full‐wave rectified and integrated EMG signals over the middle 3 s of each contraction were expressed as a percentage of the activity recorded during the three averaged MVCs. One sample t‐tests and 95% confidence intervals were calculated at each relative torque level. A two‐factor analysis of variance (muscle by intensity) with repeated measures was performed to evaluate parallel activation across the intensity levels. Activation linearity was assessed via regression analysis for each muscle. VM activation was shown to be significantly lower than expected at 20–70% MVC. VL and RF activations were significantly higher than expected at 10% MVC, and RF EMG was less than expected at 40–70% MVC. EMG of VM was shown to increase significantly more than VL and RF from 80% to 90% MVC. Significant linear and quadratic relations were also demonstrated for all three muscles. Parallel activation of the superficial quadriceps muscles occurred from low to moderate intensities, whereas convergence was noted at near maximal intensities.

The effects of voluntary contraction intensity and gender on perceived exertion during isokinetic quadriceps exercise.

Abstract The objectives of the present study were to: (1) examine perceived exertion across different target voluntary contraction intensities, (2) compare perceived exertion ratings with actual target intensities, and (3) compare perceived exertion ratings between males and females. The subjects for this study included 30 healthy, college-aged male (n=15) and female (n=15) volunteers. All subjects were free of orthopedic, cardiopulmonary, systemic and neurological disease. Each subject completed five maximal isokinetic, concentric quadriceps contractions in a seated position at 60° · s−1 to determine their single, highest peak torque. All subjects then completed, in a random order, 3–5 submaximal isokinetic contractions at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% of their single, highest peak torque. Each relative contraction level (i.e., percentage) was achieved by having the subjects attempt to match the peak of their torque curve to a horizontal line on a computer monitor. Perceived exertion was measured by asking the subjects to provide a number that corresponded to the feelings in their quadriceps during exercise by viewing a modified category-ratio (CR-10) scale. The results of a two-factor (gender × intensity) analysis of variance revealed a significant, intensity main effect (F8,232=92.19, P < 0.001, η2=0.77, 1–β=0.99) and no significant gender main effect (F8,232=2.66, P = 0.11, η2=0.09, 1–β=0.35) or interactions (F8,232 = 1.01, P=0.43, η2=0.04, 1–β=0.46). The findings of this study demonstrate that perceived exertion is significantly (P < 0.05) different from the specific target values on the CR-10 scale at 10%, and 50–90% maximum voluntary contraction. The results revealed that the increase in perceived exertion across the contraction intensities could be fit to both linear (F1,29=205.41, P < 0.001, η2=0.88, 1–β=0.99) and quadratic (F1,29=10.05, P=0.004, η2=0.26, 1–β=0.87) trends. These findings suggest that perceived exertion is underestimated during submaximal isokinetic exercise, and is not different between males and females.

Gender differences in perceived exertion during fatiguing knee extensions.

PURPOSE To examine gender differences in knee extensor strength, fatigue, and perceived exertion during a single set of continuous dynamic knee extensor contractions. METHODS Fifteen men and 15 women were evaluated for their one-repetition maximum (1RM) during a single-leg, inertial knee extension with their right leg. All subjects then completed a single set of repeated knee extensions with a load equivalent to 50% of their 1RM to failure. Subjects lifted the weight by performing a knee extension, held the weight with the knee extended for 1-2 s, and then lowered the weight in a slow and controlled manner. Perceived exertion was measured after completion of each repetition, by viewing a modified Borg category-ratio (CR-10) scale. Perceived exertion responses were standardized across subjects via linear interpolation and power function modeling. The linear interpolated perceived exertion estimates were then examined for linear, quadratic, and cubic trends across the repetitions. RESULTS Men lifted a significantly greater amount of mass than women, when corrected for body mass. Men and women did not differ significantly in the number of repetitions performed to failure. Women displayed significantly higher power function exponents for the perceived exertion response than men (0.72 +/- 0.16 and 0.57 +/- 0.16, respectively) and demonstrated statistically nonsignificant greater increases in perceived exertion than men across the repetitions. CONCLUSIONS The major findings of this study indicated that: 1) men inherently possessed greater knee extensor strength than women; 2) submaximal fatiguing knee extensor performance did not differ between genders; 3) model selection had a significant impact on standardizing perceived exertion estimates; and 4) subtle gender differences in the perceived exertion response may have existed during submaximal, fatiguing resistance exercise.

Chapter 8 The Perceptual Side of Action:Decision-Making in Sport

Publisher Summary Decision-making in sports is viewed from a cognitive perspective and is couched within an information processing model. The chapter investigates the research that has been directed towards gaining an understanding of the perceptual/cognitive component of producing motor actions in sport settings. The chapter provides evidence from the empirical data base, which has identified experts as having a higher level of decision-making when compared to novices in a specific sport setting. The chapter presents the characteristics of decision-making that distinguish an expert from a novice, and highlights under what conditions the expert/novice separation in decision-making capabilities breaks down. The chapter explains why an expert has superior decision-making processes when compared to a novice. The chapter focuses on the research methodologies that have employed and argued that differences in research methodology have at times limited the understanding of the perceptual process. The issue of perceptual training in athletes is overviewed and the potential value of video technology for improving decision-making capabilities is discussed.

Knee extensor torque and quadriceps femoris EMG during perceptually-guided isometric contractions

The aim of this study was to examine superficial quadriceps femoris (QF) EMG and torque at perceived voluntary contraction efforts. Thirty subjects (15 males, 15 females) performed 9, 5 s, sub-maximal contractions at prescribed levels of perceived voluntary effort at points 1-9 on an 11-point scale (0-10), in a random order. Surface electromyograms (EMG) of the vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL), and rectus femoris (RF) muscles, as well as QF peak torque (PT), average torque (AT), and torque coefficient of variation (C.V.), were sampled. The raw EMG signals were full-wave rectified and integrated over the middle three s of each contraction. The sampled EMG signals, and PT and AT at each perceived exertion level were normalized to the average of three maximal voluntary contractions. The normalized EMG and torque values at each perceived exertion level were then compared to equivalent percent values (i.e., 10% at a perceived level of 1). The results demonstrated that at all perceived exertion levels, with the exception of the RF at a level of 2 which was equivalent to 20%, and the VL and RF muscles at a level 1 in which activation was greater than 10%, activation was significantly less than the equivalent percent value at each point on the scale. VM EMG was found to be less than the VL and RF from contraction levels 3-9. PT was shown to be less than the equivalent percent values at contraction levels 6-9. The AT was found to be lower than the expected percent value at perceived effort levels 2-9. Torque C.V. was not found to be different across the range of perceived effort. The major findings of this study suggested that humans over-estimate voluntary QF muscle torque when guided by perceptual sensations. It is also suggested that the produced EMG signals revealed a reliance on the VL muscle for knee extensor torque generation at sub-maximal levels.

Knee flexor torque and perceived exertion: a gender and reliability analysis.

PURPOSE The objectives of the present study were to examine gender differences and between-day variability of isometric hamstring muscle peak torque and perceived exertion. METHODS Subjects included 20 healthy, college-aged male (N = 10) and female (N = 10) volunteers. Each subject completed five maximal voluntary isometric hamstring muscle contractions (MVC), in a prone position, with their knee at 30 degrees flexion. Subjects then completed, in random order, isometric contractions at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90% of their three highest averaged MVC. Perceived exertion was measured with a modified Borg CR-10 scale after each contraction. Ten randomly chosen subjects were asked to return approximately 1 wk after the initial evaluation to repeat the same procedure. Peak hamstring muscle torque was examined in absolute (N.m), relative (N.m.kg-1), and allometric-scaled (N.m.kg-n) units. Perceived exertion across the contraction intensities was modeled to a power function in order to determine the exponent and proportionality constant. RESULTS Males generated significantly greater hamstring muscle torque than females in absolute, relative, and allometric-scaled units (P < 0.05). No significant differences in perceived exertion occurred across the submaximal contraction intensities between females and males, nor for the derived exponents and proportionality constants. Perceived exertion ratings were observed to be significantly lower (P < 0.05) across the contraction intensity range on the second day. CONCLUSIONS The major findings demonstrated that perceived exertion did not differ between healthy young female and male adults, despite males generating significantly more hamstring muscle torque, and perceived exertion ratings decreased at similar relative contraction intensity levels across testing days.

Knee extensor torque, work, and EMG during subjectively graded dynamic contractions

We examined knee extensor peak torque, work, and electromyogram (EMG) during dynamic contractions to perceived exertion levels in men and women. Thirty subjects performed three maximal effort isokinetic knee extensions (60 deg.s−1), followed by three contractions to each of nine separate levels of perceived exertion. Surface EMG of the vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL), and rectus femoris (RF), and knee extensor peak torque and work were normalized to a percent of each respective value obtained during the maximal effort contractions. The results demonstrated a significant linear increase in voluntary knee extensor peak torque and work across perceived exertion levels. Knee extensor peak torque and work were less than 70%, 80%, and 90% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at perceived exertion levels 7, 8, and 9, respectively. A significant increase in VM, VL, and RF muscle EMG was observed across perceived exertion levels 1 through 9, with EMG increase highest for the VL. The findings demonstrate that dynamic contractions guided by perceived exertion are underproduced at relatively high perceptual intensities, and that reliance on VL activation occurs across submaximal torque levels. The overestimation of knee extensor peak torque and work at relatively high perceptual intensities may suggest the presence of a subconscious mechanism aiming to reduce high muscle and joint forces. Muscle Nerve 28: 54–61, 2003

Contraction mode shift in quadriceps femoris muscle activation during dynamic knee extensor exercise with increasing loads.

The objective of the present study was to examine the superficial quadriceps femoris (QF) muscle electromyogram (EMG) during dynamic sub-maximal knee extension exercise between young adult men and women. Thirty subjects completed, in a random order, 2 sub-maximal repetitions of single-leg knee extensions at 20-90% of their one-repetition maximum (1RM). Vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF) muscle integrated EMG (IEMG) during each sub-maximal lift was normalized to the respective 1RM for concentric, isometric and eccentric modes. The EMG median frequency (f(med)) was determined over the isometric mode. Men attained a significantly (p<0.05) greater knee angular velocity than the women during the concentric mode (83.6+/-19.1 degrees /s and 67.4+/-19.8 degrees /s, respectively). RF IEMG was significantly lesser than the VM (p=0.014) and VL (p<0.001) muscles, when collapsed across all contraction modes, loads, and sex. Overall IEMG was significantly greater during the concentric (p<0.001) and isometric (p<0.001) modes, than the eccentric mode. Men generated significantly (p=0.03) greater VL muscle IEMG than the women, while the opposite pattern emerged for the RF muscle. VM f(med) (105.1+/-11.1Hz) was significantly lesser than the VL (180.3+/-19.5Hz) and RF (127.7+/-13.9Hz) muscles across all lifting intensities, while the men (137.7+/-10.7Hz) generated greater values than the women (129.0+/-11.4Hz). The findings demonstrate a reduction in QF muscle activation across the concentric to eccentric transition, which may be related to the mode-specific velocity pattern.

EMG-Torque Relationship and Reliability of the Medial and Lateral Hamstring Muscles

PURPOSE The objectives of the present investigation were to examine the EMG-joint torque relation and day-to-day reliability of the medial (MH) and lateral hamstring (LH) muscles during isometric contractions. METHODS Twenty young adults performed five maximal voluntary isometric hamstring contractions (MVC) followed by contractions at 10%-90% MVC, in a random order. Full-wave-rectified and -integrated EMG during the middle 3 s of each contraction was expressed as a percent of the EMG during the three highest averaged MVC. A three-factor ANOVA (muscle x intensity x gender) with repeated measures was performed on normalized EMG activity. Reliability coefficients were determined for 10 randomly selected subjects that repeated the testing procedures 1 wk after the first session. RESULTS The MH and LH EMG were observed to be significantly greater than equivalent percent MVC values at all intensity levels. A significant linear increase in MH and LH EMG was observed across contraction intensity levels, with no muscle or gender differences. Reliability was high for MH EMG across contraction intensities of 10%-60% MVC (intraclass correlation (ICC) = 0.70-0.82), moderate for the LH across 10%-30% MVC (ICC = 0.57-0.68) and the MH at 70% MVC (ICC = 0.52), and unreliable across all other contraction intensities for both muscles. CONCLUSIONS The linear increase in MH and LH EMG, as a function of contraction intensity, was similar between both muscles but was highly reliable only for the MH during low to moderate intensities.