Alan L. Kelly

High-pressure processing--effects on microbial food safety and food quality.

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a nonthermal process capable of inactivating and eliminating pathogenic and food spoilage microorganisms. This novel technology has enormous potential in the food industry, controlling food spoilage, improving food safety and extending product shelf life while retaining the characteristics of fresh, preservative-free, minimally processed foods. As with other food processing methods, such as thermal processing, HPP has somewhat limited applications as it cannot be universally applied to all food types, such as some dairy and animal products and shelf-stable low-acid foods. Herein, we discuss the effects of high-pressure processing on microbial food safety and, to a lesser degree, food quality.

High pressure homogenisation of raw whole bovine milk (a) effects on fat globule size and other properties

Although widely adopted by the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in recent years, little published data is available regarding possible applications of high pressure homogenisation for dairy products. The objective of this work was to compare the effects of conventional (18 MPa, two-stage) and single or two-stage high pressure homogenisation (HPH) at 50-200 MPa on some properties of raw whole bovine milk (approximately 4% fat). Fat globule size decreased as HPH pressure increased and, under certain conditions of temperature and pressure, HPH yielded significantly smaller fat globules than conventional homogenisation. Fat globule size was also affected by milk inlet temperature. The pH of all homogenised milk samples decreased during 24 h refrigerated storage. Total bacterial counts of milk were decreased significantly (P < 0.05) for milk samples HPH-treated at 150 or 200 MPa. Whiteness and rennet coagulation properties of milk were unaffected or enhanced, respectively, as homogenisation pressure was increased. Average casein micelle size decreased slightly when skim milk was homogenised at 200 MPa. Thus, HPH treatment has several, potentially significant, effects on milk properties.

Effects of high pressure on constituents and properties of milk

High pressure (HP) treatment has significant and, in many cases, unique effects on many constituents of milk. The structure of casein micelles is disrupted and the whey proteins, alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin, are denatured, with the former being more resistant to pressure than the latter. Pressure-induced shifts in the mineral balance in milk also occur and moderately high pressures (100-400 MPa) induce the crystallisation of milk fat. However, milk enzymes seem to be quite resistant to pressure. As a result of pressure-induced effects on individual milk constituents, many properties of milk are affected. HP treatment increases the pH of milk, reduces its turbidity, changes its appearance, and can reduce the rennet coagulation time of milk and increase cheese yield, thereby indicating potential applications in cheese technology. However, to fully understand the effects of HP treatment on milk and to evaluate the full potential of this process in dairy technology, further research is required in several areas, including the reversibility of pressure-induced changes in milk and the physical stability of HP-treated milk

High pressure treatment of bovine milk: effects on casein micelles and whey proteins

Effects of high pressure (HP) on average casein micelle size and denaturation of alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-la) and beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg) in raw skim bovine milk were studied over a range of conditions. Micelle size was not influenced by treatment at pressures <200 MPa, but treatment at 250 MPa increased micelle size by approximately 25%, while treatment at > or = 300 MPa irreversibly reduced it to approximately 50% of that in untreated milk. The increase in micelle size after treatment at 250 MPa was greater with increasing treatment time and temperature and milk pH. Treatment times > or = 2 min at 400 MPa resulted in similar levels of micelle disruption, but increasing milk pH to 7.0 partially stabilised micelles against HP-induced disruption. Denaturation of alpha-la did not occur < or = 400 MPa, whereas beta-lg was denatured at pressures >100 MPa. Denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg increased with increasing pressure, treatment time and temperature and milk pH. The majority of denatured beta-lg was apparently associated with casein micelles. These effects of HP on casein micelles and whey proteins in milk may have significant implications for properties of products made from HP-treated milk.

Potential applications of high pressure homogenisation in processing of liquid milk

Studies of the potential of high pressure homogenisation (HPH) for the combined pasteurisation/ homogenisation of raw bovine milk were undertaken. Raw milk was preheated to 45 degrees C and HPH-treated at 150, 200 or 250 MPa; milk outlet temperature at these pressures were 67, 76.8 and 83.6 degrees C, respectively, with a holding time of approximately 20 s. Raw and commercially pasteurized and homogenized (CPH) milk samples were analysed as controls. Fat globules in HPH samples were approximately half the size of those in CPH samples, although differences were not significant (P>0.05). beta-Lactoglobulin was denatured at pressures > or =150MPa, although little denaturation of alpha-lactalbumin was observed. Numbers of psychrotrophic bacteria in raw milk were reduced by 2.73 log cycles by HPH at 150 MPa and were uncountable following HPH at 200 or 250 MPa. Mesophilic bacterial counts were reduced by 1.30, 1.83 and 3.06 log cycles by HPH at 150, 200 or 250 MPa, respectively. No viable Staphylococcus aureus nor coliform cells remained in any HPH milk samples. HPH did not affect the colour of milk and HPH samples did not cream during refrigerated storage. The activities of plasmin, alkaline phosphatase and lactoperoxidase in milk were all greatly reduced by HPH. Pseudomonas fluorescens, inoculated into milk (approximately 10(6) cfu/ml), was reduced to undetectable levels by HPH at 200MPa (milk inlet temperature, approximately 10 degrees C); however, Ps. fluorescens proteinase was quite resistant to HPH under such conditions. Overall, owing to the significant increase in temperature and the possibility of varying the holding time, there may be potential applications for HPH as a novel liquid milk processing technique, combining many advantages of conventional homogenization and pasteurization of milk in a single process.

Use of Hydrostatic Pressure for Inactivation of Microbial Contaminants in Cheese

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to determine the effect of high pressure (HP) on the inactivation of microbial contaminants in Cheddar cheese (Escherichia coli K-12, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, and Penicillium roqueforti IMI 297987). Initially, cheese slurries inoculated with E. coli, S. aureus, and P. roqueforti were used as a convenient means to define the effects of a range of pressures and temperatures on the viability of these microorganisms. Cheese slurries were subjected to pressures of 50 to 800 MPa for 20 min at temperatures of 10, 20, and 30°C. At 400 MPa, the viability ofP. roqueforti in cheese slurry decreased by >2-log-unit cycles at 10°C and by 6-log-unit cycles at temperatures of 20 and 30°C. S. aureus and E. coli were not detected after HP treatments in cheese slurry of >600 MPa at 20°C and >400 MPa at 30°C, respectively. In addition to cell death, the presence of sublethally injured cells in HP-treated slurries was demonstrated by differential plating using nonselective agar incorporating salt or glucose. Kinetic experiments of HP inactivation demonstrated that increasing the pressure from 300 to 400 MPa resulted in a higher degree of inactivation than increasing the pressurization time from 0 to 60 min, indicating a greater antimicrobial impact of pressure. Selected conditions were subsequently tested on Cheddar cheese by adding the isolates to cheese milk and pressure treating the resultant cheeses at 100 to 500 MPa for 20 min at 20°C. The relative sensitivities of the isolates to HP in Cheddar cheese were similar to those observed in the cheese slurry, i.e., P. roqueforti was more sensitive thanE. coli, which was more sensitive than S. aureus. The organisms were more sensitive to pressure in cheese than slurry, especially with E. coli. On comparison of the sensitivities of the microorganisms in a pH 5.3 phosphate buffer, cheese slurry, and Cheddar cheese, greatest sensitivity to HP was shown in the pH 5.3 phosphate buffer by S. aureus and P. roqueforti while greatest sensitivity to HP by E. coli was exhibited in Cheddar cheese. Therefore, the medium in which the microorganisms are treated is an important determinant of the level of inactivation observed.

High pressure treatment: applications in cheese manufacture and ripening

High pressure (HP) treatment has emerged as a food processing technology primarily due to increasing interest in novel methods for preservation of foods. Applying HP to food products modifies interactions between individual components, influences rates of enzymatic reactions and can inactivate microorganisms. This paper reviews studies of HP induced changes in milk relevant to cheesemaking, including the effects of HP on rennet coagulation time, rate of curd formation and cheese yield. Published studies on the effects of direct HP treatment of cheese and specifically the effects of HP on cheese ripening characteristics, functionality and microbiology, are also reviewed.

High Pressure Processing of Foods: An Overview

Publisher Summary The application of any new technology presents significant challenges to food technologists and food researchers. High-pressure (HP) processing offers the food industry a technology that can achieve the food safety of heat pasteurization while meeting consumer demand for fresher-tasting minimally-processed foods. In addition, other favorable organoleptic, nutritional, and rheological properties of foods have been demonstrated following HP, in comparison to heat processing. The retention of color, aroma, and the preservation of nutritive components are enormous benefits for both food processing industry and consumers. Also, from a food processing/engineering perspective, key advantages of high-pressure applications of food systems are the independence of size and geometry of the sample during processing, possibilities for low temperature treatment, and the availability of a waste-free, environment-friendly technology. Application of HP can inactivate microorganisms and enzymes and modify structures while having little or no effects on nutritional and sensory quality aspects of foods. HP food processing today is being used on an ever-increasing commercial basis. Opportunities clearly exist for innovative applications and new food product development. HP can affect the functionality of protein and carbohydrate molecules often in unique ways, which may allow optimization of food manufacturing processes and production of novel foods. The range of commercially available HP-processed products is relatively small at present, but there are opportunities for further development and production of a wide range of HP-treated products.

High pressure-induced denaturation of α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin in bovine milk and whey: a possible mechanism

In this study, high pressure (HP)-induced denaturation of alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-la) and beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg) in dairy systems was examined. In both milk and whey, beta-lg was less baroresistant than alpha-la; both proteins were considerably more resistant to HP-induced denaturation in whey than in milk. HP-induced denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg increased with increasing proportion of milk in mixtures of milk and whey. Addition of a sulphydryl-oxidising agent, KlO3, to milk or whey increased HP-induced denaturation of beta-lg, but reduced the denaturation of alpha-la. Denaturation of both alpha-la and beta-lg was prevented by adding a sulphydryl-blocking agent, N-ethylmaleimide, to milk or whey prior to HP treatment, highlighting the crucial role of sulphydryl-disulphide interchange reactions in HP-induced denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg. Removal of colloidal calcium phosphate from milk also reduced HP-induced denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg significantly. The higher level of HP-induced denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg in milk than in whey may be the result of the abscence of the casein micelles and colloidal calcium phosphate from whey, which facilitate HP-induced denaturation of alpha-la and beta-lg in milk.

Influence of transglutaminase treatment on some physico-chemical properties of milk

Transglutaminase (TGase) is an enzyme that cross-links many proteins, including milk proteins. In this study, the effects of TGase on some physico-chemical properties of milk were studied. TGase-treated milk was not coagulable by rennet, which was due to failure of the primary (enzymic) stage of rennet action rather than the non-enzymic secondary phase. Dissociation of TGase-treated casein micelles by urea or sodium citrate or removal of colloidal calcium phosphate by acidification and dialysis was reduced, presumably due to the formation of cross-links between the caseins. Casein micelles in TGase-treated milks were also resistant to high pressure treatment and to hydrolysis by plasmin. Results of the present study show that milk proteins are fundamentally modified by the action of TGase, which may have applications in the manufacture of functional proteins for use as novel food ingredients.