Alba A. Ortiz

Justifying and Explaining Disproportionality 1968—2008: A Critique of Underlying Views of Culture

Special education has made considerable advances in research, policy, and practice in its short history. However, students from historically underserved groups continue to be disproportionately identified as requiring special education. Support for color-blind practices and policies can justify racial disproportionality in special education and signal a retrenchment to deficit views about students from historically underserved groups. We respond to these emerging concerns through an analysis of arguments that justify disproportionality. We also identify explanations of the problem and critique the views of culture that underlie these explanations. We conclude with a brief discussion of implications and future directions.

Preventing Disproportionate Representation: Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Prereferral Interventions:

the 1970s in response to the concern about inappropriate identification and labeling of children for special education and has evolved over time into a variety of models. The primary concern of all models has generally been to differentiate students with disabilities from those whose academic or behavioral difficulties reflect other factors, including inappropriate or inadequate instruction. In all these models, students who are persistently nonresponsive to more intensive and alternative instructional or behavioral interventions over time are viewed as the most likely candidates for special education (Fletcher, Barnes, & Francis, 2002; Ortiz, 2002). Current discussions about responseto-intervention (RTI) models for the identification of learning disabilities (LDs) reflect these concerns as well (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). When RTI is implemented with culturally and linguistically diverse learners, it is critical that the prereferral intervention process is culturally and linguistically responsive; that is, educators must ensure that students’ sociocultural, linguistic, racial/ethnic, and other relevant background characteristics are addressed at all stages, including reviewing student performance, considering reasons for student difficulty or failure, designing alternative interventions, and interpreting assessment results (Ortiz, 2002). Without such examination, even prereferral intervention practices may not result in improved student outcomes and may continue to result in disproportionate representation in special education. In this brief, we highlight four key elements of culturally and linguistically responsive prereferral intervention for culturally and linguistically diverse students. These elements are (1) Preventing School Underachievement and Failure, (2) Early Intervention for Struggling Learners, (3) Diagnostic/ Prescriptive Teaching, and (4) Availability of General Education ProblemSolving Support Systems.

Bilingual Phonological Awareness: Multilevel Construct Validation among Spanish-Speaking Kindergarteners in Transitional Bilingual Education Classrooms.

The construct validity of English and Spanish phonological awareness (PA) tasks was examined with a sample of 812 kindergarten children from 71 transitional bilingual education program classrooms located in 3 different types of geographic regions in California and Texas. Tasks of PA, including blending nonwords, segmenting words, and phoneme elision, were measured in Spanish and in English and analyzed via multilevel confirmatory factor analysis at the task level. Results showed that the PA tasks defined a unitary construct at both the student and classroom levels in each language. English and Spanish PA factors were related to each other (.93 and .83 at the student and classroom levels, respectively) as well as to word reading, both within languages (correlations estimated between .74 and .93) and across languages (correlations estimated between .47 and .79). Although the PA constructs were statistically separable in each language, the high correlation between Spanish and English PA indicates considerable overlap in these abilities.

Incidence of Exceptionality among Hispanics: Implications for Manpower Planning.

This paper has three purposes: 1) to bring to the attention of the reader information concerning the incidence of handicapping conditions among Hispanics as found in one state in the Southwest. Texas has a large Hispanic population and a long history of extensive service delivery to the handicapped, and therefore, provides an appropriate setting for such a focus on handicapping conditions among Hispanics. 2) to provide a specific example of the application of a manpower planning model of general interest to educators; and 3) to bring to the attention of the reader the significant manpower needs associated with serving exceptional Hispanics.

English Language Learners With Reading-Related LD Linking Data From Multiple Sources to Make Eligibility Determinations

Results are reported for an exploratory study of eligibility decisions made for 21 Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs) with learning disabilities (LD) and no secondary disabilities who received special education support in reading. Eligibility determinations by an expert panel resulted in decisions that differed significantly from those of school multidisciplinary teams. The panel agreed that some students appeared to have reading-related LD (n = 5) but also identified students that they believed had disabilities, but not necessarily reading-related LD (n = 6). Another group of students (n = 10) had learning problems that the panel believed could be attributed to factors other than LD or for whom substantive additional data would be required to validate eligibility. Issues associated with referral, assessment, and eligibility determinations for ELLs are discussed, and recommendations for improving practice are offered, with an emphasis on the importance of linking data from multiple sources when deciding whether ELLs qualify for special education.

The Role of Bilingual Education Teachers in Preventing Inappropriate Referrals of ELLs to Special Education: Implications for Response to Intervention

Data from three interrelated studies of English Language Learners who were identified as having reading-related learning disabilities suggest that the majority of participants were misclassified. Bilingual education teachers and other educational professionals had difficulty distinguishing students for whom special education referral was appropriate from those whose learning problems could be explained by factors such as inconsistent schooling or failure to provide timely interventions to address their learning needs. The role of bilingual education teachers in screening, assessment, and progress monitoring; the delivery of tiered instruction; and the documentation of results over time is discussed, along with guidance for deciding whether a student should be referred to special education. Implications for the design and implementation of Response to Intervention for ELLs are also discussed along with the corresponding professional development needs.

Assessment and Intervention Model for the Bilingual Exceptional Student (AIM for the BESt)

The Assessment and Intervention Model for the Bilingual Exceptional Student (AIM for the BESt) suggests a service delivery system designed to (a) improve the academic performance of limited English proficient students in regular and special education programs, (b) reduce the inappropriate referral of LEP students to special education, and (c) ensure that assessment procedures are nonbiased The model involves the use of three interventions: campus-based problem-solving teams, criterion-referenced or curriculum-based assessment, and effective instructional practices, with a focus on reciprocal interaction teaching. This article describes the model and suggests the type of inservice training needed by regular and special educators who serve language-minority studetns.

Professional Development Needs of Teachers Who Serve Exceptional Language Minorities in Today's Schools

This article discusses educational reform and personnel preparation in relation to dramatic changes in the student demography. Professional development needs of teachers who serve exceptional language minorities are delineated. These competencies include understanding first and second language acquisition, using instructional approaches that are appropriate for second-language learners, and effective organization and management of instruction.

Response to intervention and English-language learners: instructional and assessment considerations.

This article presents issues associated with the implementation of a three-tier response to intervention (RTI) approach with English-language learners (ELLs). Instructional and assessment considerations are discussed particularly as they pertain to issues of language and literacy development. Opportunities for collaboration among bilingual education, English as a second language, and general education teachers, and speech-language pathologists are identified. In addition to effective Tier 1 and Tier 2 interventions, prerequisites to the success of RTI approaches for ELLs are discussed, including school climate and effective instruction.

Serving Hispanic Students with Learning Disabilities: Recommended Policies and Practices

Educators continue to have difficulty distinguishing learning disabilities from second language differences among Hispanic students. This article identifies major issues in the identification, assessment, and placement of Hispanic students in programs for students with learning disabilities, with a focus on limited English proficient Hispanic students. The authors recommend policies and practices which can help safeguard these students against inappropriate special education placement.