Albert W. Franzmann

Dispersal and survival of subadult black bears from the Kenai peninsula, Alaska

Movements, dispersal, and survival rates of subadult black bears (Ursus americanus) are poorly documented in North America. Consequently, we studied timing of family breakup, post-breakup range use, timing and distances of dispersal, and survival of subadult black bears from 2 areas on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. One study area was burned in 1947 and the other in 1969, representing different aged stands of boreal forest. Timing of family breakup was not different between the 2 areas (P=0.86), so data were pooled. Among 28 family groups, no yearlings separated from their mothers by 7 May, but all had by 25 june

Energy Requirements of Adult Moose for Winter Maintenance

Nine adult moose (Alces alces) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 diets in 2 separate feeding trials. Our objectives were to determine how moose respond in winter to varying amounts of the same quality of food, and to the same amount of food which possessed varying nutritional quality. During trial 1, moose were fed a pelleted diet ad libitum, and 85.1 and 72.5% of the ad libitum diet. During trial 2, moose were fed ad libitum 1 of 3 pelleted diets containing digestible energy concentrations of 2.4, 2.1, and 1.8 kcal/g dry matter. Linear regression equations of digestible energy intake (kcal/kg body wt [BW].75/day) with mean monthly body weight gain or loss (kg/day) provided the basis for estimating maintenance energy requirements. Our best estimates of energy required for maintenance were 148 and 131 kcal/kg BWo075/day of digestible and metabolizable energy, respectively. The relationship between heat production and metabolizable energy intake provided an estimate for theoretical basal metabolism of 73 kcal/kg BW0-75/day. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(1):26-33 Wild moose weight loss during winter (Franzmann et al. 1978) is assumed to be caused by declines in forage quality and abundance. However, captive moose fed a diet of constant quality all year lost weight during winter regardless of food availability (Schwartz et al. 1984). Under natural conditions, moose lose weight in response to declines in forage quality and availability during winter. However, weight loss is also affected by certain physiological mechanisms that affect metabolic rate. Metabolic rate can vary seasonally (Regelin et al. 1985) with changes in food consumption (Hubbert 1987) and fat catabolism (Abbott et al. 1984). Shifts in metabolic processes may ultimately determine survival. Because the mechanisms controlling weight loss in moose are not simply driven by food quality and availability, our objective was to determine how moose respond in winter to varying amounts of the same quality of food, and to the same amount of food with varying nutritional quality. By determining these responses we were able to calculate maintenance energy requirements during winter and document changes in weight associated with various levels of energy consumption. We appreciate the help of D. C. Johnson, J. S. Bevins, R. W. Bale, C. Lodge, D. M. Waring, C. A. Bando, and D. J. Groves with animal care and sample collection. E. F. Becker and D. J. Reed helped with statistical analysis, and K. B. Schneider, L. A. Renecker, S. R. Peterson, M. Branine, and B. Townsend reviewed the manuscript. This study is a contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Project W-17 and W-21.

Browse quality and the Kenai moose population

The quality of moose (Alces alces) forage on the northwestern Kenai Peninsula, Alaska was evaluated by determining digestibility (as in vitro dry matter disappearance) and levels of fiber, protein, and minerals for 1 winter and 2 summer collections. There were significant changes in all parameters between summer and winter in the major browse species-paper birch (Betula papyrifera), aspen (Populus tremuloides), willow (Salix sp.), alder (Alnus sp.), and lowbush cranberry (Vaccinium vitisidaea) and significant differences among species within seasons. Considering all factors, alder and.willow ranked as the best summer browse plants and lowbush cranberry as the poorest; in winter, aspen and lowbush cranberry ranked best and paper birch poorest. However, since the different species provide different nutrients, sufficient quantities of all 5 species could better meet the needs of moose than any 1. The northern Kenai moose range, once multispecies habitat, is now dominated by paper birch; this is relatively poor winter forage, and the moose population is declining. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(3):533-542 The quality of plants that wild ungulates eat has been given little scrutiny. Yet, on both summer and winter range, quality is as important as quantity in maintaining healthy populations. In a study of moose forage Cowan et al. (1950) recognized the relationships between range quality, carrying capacity, and the successional stage of the forest. They noted specifically that fats (ether extracts), total carbohydrates, and proteins in the vegetation of a 6and a 20to 30-year-old forest were superior to those of a 70 plus-year-old forest; and that the most nutritious forage was found in the younger forests. Klein (1970) discussed the relationships between quantity of highquality plants and deer growth rate and body size, productivity and survival, and changes in age and sex ratio; he concluded that high-quality range is necessary for healthy deer populations. Dietz (1970) defined a high-quality plant as one that is palatable to the animal, has adequate levels of necessary nutrients in the proper ratios, has a high apparent digestibility, produces desirable proportions of volatile fatty acids, has adequate levels of minerals and vitamins, and is converted efficiently into components required by the consuming animal. Some researchers have looked at one or several of these components of quality, but no one has looked at all of them with respect to wild ungulates. This paper presents data we have collected to compare and define the quality of the important browse plants eaten by moose in summer and winter on Alaskas Kenai Peninsula. The characteristics we used to describe browse quality were: in vitro dry-matter disappearance (IVDMD), fiber content, protein content, and the concentration of 18 mineral elements. The study took place on the Kenai National Moose Range at the Kenai Moose Research Center, a cooperative research project of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Center is located in the northwestern lowlands of the Kenai Peninsula. About 40 percent of the lowlands were burned during a 125,455-ha fire in 1947. The land is rolling and covered by podsol soils that are glacially scoured and dotted with numerous lakes and bogs. Mature white J. Wildl. Manage. 41(3):1977 533 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.92 on Wed, 22 Jun 2016 05:11:59 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 534 KENAI MOOSE BROWSE QUALITY -Oldemeyer et al. spruce (Picea glauca), paper birch, and aspen remain as islands within the burn. Regrowth consists mostly of black spruce (P. mariana), paper birch, willow and aspen, with paper birch producing over 80 percent of the annual browse production. The major shrubs of the unburned stands are aspen saplings and highbush cranberry (Viburnum edule). Ground vegetation in both the burned and unburned stands is dominated by lowbush cranberry, bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), rose (Rosa acicularis), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), and fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium). Although woody browse is poorest in quality of the years food supply, it is the mainstay of the mooses winter diet. LeResche and Davis (1973) studied food selection by moose at the Kenai Moose Research Center and found that paper birch and lowbush cranberry were by far the most important species eaten during the winter on normally browsed range. Willow, aspen, alder, and dwarf birch (B. nana) are sparse and thus are not as important here as in interior Alaska (Coady 1973) or other parts of the range of moose (Peek 1974). We wish to thank V. L. Burton for in vitro and fiber analyses and G. R. Smith for crude protein determinations done at the Palmer Research Center of the University of Alaska, Institute of Agricultural Science. Parts of the study were financed by Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-R. A. Loren Ward, Ann H. Jones, and Charles P. Stone critically reviewed the manuscript.

Moose twinning rates: a possible population condition assessment

La frequence de la gemellite est un des indices de natalite utilises lors de la protection de la vie sauvage pour connaitre la bonne condition des populations. On compare ici cette frequence dans un habitat pauvre et dans un habitat favorable (Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, 1977-83)

Marrow Fat in Alaskan Moose Femurs in Relation to Mortality Factors

Fat content in femur marrow was analyzed by the dry-weight method from 181 Alaskan moose (Alces alces). Samples were classified as adults or calves, cause of death, and month sampled. Marrow fat values from adults killed by wolves (Canis lupus) or by various accidental means (road-kill, shot, and drug) were not significantly different from each other, but both were significantly higher than those from suspected starved moose. Marrow fat values from wolf-killed calves were not significantly different from those of calves dying accidentally; however they were significantly higher than those of suspected winter-killed (starved) calves. Marrow fat values from suspected winter-killed adults and calves were not significantly different. Only 3 of 97 marrow fat values from suspected winter-kills were above 10 percent. Wolves were not selective for moose with marrow fat values below 10 percent, but took both cows and calves with marrow fat means not significantly different from accidental mortalities. The effect of severity of winter on fat values is discussed. Femur marrow fat values provide a method for comparing mortality factors and a means of identifying winter-killed (starved) moose. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 40(2):336-339 Femur marrow fat content as determined by alcohol-ether extraction has been correlated with condition in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Cheatum 1949). Color and consistency of marrow were used by Riney (1955) to estimate marrow fat content in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Bischoff (1954) indicated marrow characteristics have limitations in assessing conditions of black-tailed deer (0. hemionus columbianus), and consistency of marrow was the only adequate measure of its condition. Greer (1968) reported a compression method as an index of fat content in elk (C. canadensis) femur marrows. Neiland (1970) reported the dry-weight method for determining fat in barrenground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) femurs, and Verme and Holland (1973) utilized a reagent-dry assay of marrow fat in white-tailed deer. The marrow fat indices utilizing color and consistency as a basis for evaluation have subjective error potential. Extraction procedures are relatively accurate but timeconsuming. All methods may be subject to variation based upon handling of femurs prior to analysis. Femur marrows frozen for extended periods of time may have 5 to 10 percent higher fat content than a fresh sample (Greer 1968:750). With consistency in collection, handling, and procedure each method has validity for comparative purposes. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game has utilized Neilands (1970) dry-weight method for several years. This paper reports the use of the method for moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Sampling was done to document the level of marrow fat ordinarily associated with various types of mortality in Alaskan moose. We are grateful to J. Davis, D. Johnson, R. LeResche, and P. LeRoux, who collected many of the femurs, and to C. Lucier and his staff at the Game Division Laboratory in Anchorage for the analyses. J. Coady, K. Neiland, D. McKnight, and K. Schneider read the manuscript and provided helpful suggestions. J. Oldemeyer 1 This work was supported, in part, by Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-R. 336 J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (2) :1976 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.147 on Wed, 21 Sep 2016 05:46:34 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms MARROW FAT IN MOOSE FEMURS ? Franzmann and Arneson 337 provided assistance with statistical analyses. The Kenai Moose Research Center is a cooperative project of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Kenai National Moose Range.

Evaluating Condition of Alaskan Black Bears with Blood Profiles

Blood samples were collected from 220 adult and 78 subadult black bears (Ursus americanus) from fall 1977 through summer 1985 on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. The samples were analyzed for 24 biochemical and 2 hematological parameters. Discriminant analysis was used to select useful blood parameters for assessing the condition of black bears based upon the dynamic spring to fall physical condition change. Parameters found to be most useful for females were hemoglobin (Hb), alpha 1 globulin (A1G), and calcium (Ca). The parameters most useful for males were globulin (G), packed cell volume (PCV), albumin/globulin ratio (A/G), sodium (Na), calcium/phosphorus ratio (Ca/P), and Hb. We recommend using Hb and PCV to determine the condition of black bears in the field. Blood profile changes in denning bears were detected for nearly all parameters. The urea/creatinine (U/C) mean was 8.9 for denning bears (n = 48). J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(1):63-70 Blood chemistry and hematology values have been used to apply the indicator animal concept (Franzmann 1970) to assess the nutritional status of herbivores (Franzmann 1985). LeResche et al. (1974) outlined the procedure for establishing nutrition-blood parameter relationships: (1) determine those characteristics that may potentially influence blood values (boundary conditions); (2) establish normal values within the boundary conditions; and (3) determine the nature and magnitude of changes in blood values resulting from known changes in food intake, nutrition, or related parameters. Hanks (1981) suggested adding a fourth criterion; assess the resilience of an animal population, or some measurement of its ability to withstand further perturbations. Most black bear blood studies have provided data for the identification of boundary condit ons (Eubanks et al. 1976, Bush et al. 1980, Beeman 1981). Sex, age, hibernation, and seasonal changes are sources of variation in blood values for black bears (Matula et al. 1980, Palumbo et al. 1983). This content downloaded from 207.46.13.112 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 05:30:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 64 BLOOD PROFILES OF BEARS * Franzmann and Schwartz J. Wildl. Manage. 52(1):1988 Table 1. Blood values that differed (P < 0.05) among seasons from subadult (536 months old) black bears on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, 1977-85. Blood parameter Unit Seasona f SD n Hemoglobin g/dL Summer A 16.7 2.3 27 Fall 19.7 2.1 7 Den 19.1 2.2 33 Packed cell volume % Summer A 41.5 6.7 26 Fall AB 45.7 3.1 7 Den B 48.9 5.5 33 Cholesterol mg/dL Summer 276.0 55.0 28 Fall 275.0 40.0 9 Den A 396.0 111.0 35 Lactic dehydrogenase IU/L Summer A 774.0 141.0 26 Fall 625.0 159.0 9

Protein digestion in moose

Protein digestion trials were conducted with 4 moose (Alces alces) fed isocaloric diets varying in crude protein from 8 to 16%. Maintenance requirement for nitrogen was 0.627 ? 0.073 g/kg BW075/day. This represented a minimum dietary crude protein content of 6.8 ? 0.8%. Each additional unit of ingested nitrogen resulted in 0.346 ? 0.140 units increase in retained body nitrogen and 0.561 ? 0.140 units increase in urinary nitrogen loss. Metabolic fecal nitrogen was 0.457 g/100 g dry matter consumed. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 51(2):352-357 Moose are an important species in Alaska, valued both aesthetically and as a source of meat. As human populations increase, competition for the moose resource will intensify, thereby requiring imaginative and scientifically reliable management. Recent studies (Moen 1973, Robbins 1973, Wallmo et al. 1977, Hobbs and Swift 1985) advocated predicting habitat carrying capacity for ungulates based upon an understanding of animal nutrition. The concept of biological carrying capacity balances nutritional requirements of the animal with the nutrients supplied from the vegetation. Crude protein and digestible energy have been considered as the most frequently limiting nutrients supplied by the range forage (Moen 1973, Wallmo et al. 1977). Available literature concerning nutrient requirements, metabolic rates, and digestive capabilities for deer (Odocoileus spp.) is extensive. The literature is replete with information on food habits of moose (Peek 1974), but studies of their nutritional requirements are rare (Hjeljord et al. 1982, Renecker and Hudson 1985, Schwartz et al. 1986). We examined protein digestion in moose to better understand their protein requirements and to facilitate predicting carrying capacities of the ranges they oc-

Serologic Studies of Select Infectious Diseases of Moose (Alces alces L.) from Alaska

may have lost detectable antibody due to natural decline or to chronic stress occurring during the last several years. The sheep could have then become susceptible to infections with these agents, predisposing them to bacterial (Pasteurella) pneumonia. The exact role of this respiratory syncytial virus or of PI-3 virus in the pathogenesis of illness of sheep of the Ouray herd could not be elucidated, but further serologic testing should help to clarify their roles. Viruses were first implicated as being a possible predisposing factor to bacterial pneumonia in bighorn sheep in the mid 1960’s (Howe et al., 1966, Bull. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 2: 34-37). The first respiratory virus isolated from bighorn sheep was PI-3 virus from a captive herd in Wyoming (Parks et al., 1972, J , Wildl. Dis. 6: 669672). Later PI-3 virus was isolated from free-ranging bighorn lambs from Colorado (Spraker, 1979, Ph.D. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 232 pp.). Respiratory syncytial virus has been isolated from domestic sheep (Evermann et al., 1985, Am. J. Vet . Res. 46: 947-952) and pneumonic lesions have been induced experimentally in sheep using challenges of both respiratory syncytial virus and Pasteurella huemolytica (AlBarraji et al., 1982, Am. J. Vet. Res. 43: 236-240). Isolation of a respiratory syncytial virus from this 8-mo-old bighorn lamb and serological evidence of this virus within the herd documents the presence of another respiratory virus of bighorn sheep. The primary role of this bighorn sheep respiratory syncytial virus in the pathogenesis of bacterial bronchopneumonia observed in these two sheep and in producing the rhinitis and coughing in the herd was undetermined.

COMPARISON AND ASSESSMENT OF DRUGS USED TO IMMOBILIZE ALASKAN GRAY WOLVES (CANIS LUPUS) AND WOLVERINES (GULO GULO) FROM A HELICOPTER

One hundred and three Alaskan gray wolves and 12 wolverines were immobilized in the Nelchina and upper Susitna River Basins of southcentral Alaska between March 1977 and May 1981. Sixty five wolves were immobilized with a mixture of phencyclidine HCl and promazine HCl (PP/HCl); 38 wolves were immobilized with etorphine HCl (EHCl) and 12 wolverines were immobilized with EHCl or with a mixture of EHCl and xylazine HCl (XHCl). Phencyclidine HCl is no longer commercially available and an assessment of etorphine HCl as a replacement drug was made. Etorphine HCl dosage of 2.5 mg/wolf proved to be a suitable replacement for PP/HCl for immobilizing wolves while 0.7 mg EHCl with 50 mg XHCl appeared suitable for wolverines.

Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in Moose (Alces alces L.) from Alaska

Received for publication 26 November 1985. 56 C for 30 min. Samples with 2 + reactions at a dilution of 1:64 or greater were considered positive. Twenty-five of 110 moose (23%) were seropositive. The results of this study indicate that T . gondii is enzootic in moose in Alaska. In light of the finding of serum antibody to T . gondii in 28% of 1,572 Alaskan natives (Peterson et al., 1974, J. Infect. Dis. 130: 557-563) it appears that thorough cooking of moose meat from Alaska is advisable.