Albrecht Schneider

A single dual-stream framework for syntactic computations in music and language

This study is the first to compare in the same subjects the specific spatial distribution and the functional and anatomical connectivity of the neuronal resources that activate and integrate syntactic representations during music and language processing. Combining functional magnetic resonance imaging with functional connectivity and diffusion tensor imaging-based probabilistic tractography, we examined the brain network involved in the recognition and integration of words and chords that were not hierarchically related to the preceding syntax; that is, those deviating from the universal principles of grammar and tonal relatedness. This kind of syntactic processing in both domains was found to rely on a shared network in the left hemisphere centered on the inferior part of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), including pars opercularis and pars triangularis, and on dorsal and ventral long association tracts connecting this brain area with temporo-parietal regions. Language processing utilized some adjacent left hemispheric IFG and middle temporal regions more than music processing, and music processing also involved right hemisphere regions not activated in language processing. Our data indicate that a dual-stream system with dorsal and ventral long association tracts centered on a functionally and structurally highly differentiated left IFG is pivotal for domain-general syntactic competence over a broad range of elements including words and chords.

Verschmelzung, Tonal Fusion, and Consonance: Carl Stumpf Revisited

This article discusses C. Stumpfs concept of “Verschmelzung”, as part of his philosophical and psychological theories including consonance since these are not generally known today. In particular, it is shown how Stumpf had elaborated his concept in certain respects from the Tonpsychologie (Stumpf, 1883, 1890) to his final writings. To allow a more adequate understanding of Stumpf, also his ideas on concordance and discordance are briefly summarized. Further, it is argued that “Verschmelzung” is related to, yet not identical with modern views of tonal fusion. In connection with Stumpfs criteria for integral hearing (“einheitliches Horen”), issues and experimental findings on tonal fusion are surveyed, and are interpreted also with respect to neurophysiological mechanisms that are possibly relevant to perception of fusion. It can be hypothesized that fusion — as being prerequisite to the experience of consonance — is a natural rather than a cultural phenomenon. Finally, Stumpfs assertion according to which the sensational attribute of roughness, and the perceptual quality of dissonance, can be separated from each other, is reexamined on the basis of experimental data.

On rhythm perception: Theoretical issues, empirical findings*

Abstract The first part of this article discusses theoretical issues in rhythm perception, and in particular the so‐called Derler system which has been employed in the interpretation of, mainly, non‐Western rhythmic phenomena. This system can be related to theories of time quanta perception in cognitive neuropsychology. Rhythm perception and theory serve as examples of how to combine results from different disciplines to obtain a unified framework for further research. The motor theory of perception is proposed as a good starting point to develop a general cognitive architecture and unified approach to music perception and cognition. The unified approach to music perception and cognition evolving from computational neuroscience, neurological clinical case studies, and cognitive neuropsychology, it is proposed, should be called cognitive neuromusicology. In part two, empirical findings are reported which have been obtained in experiments we have carried out exploring perception of rhythmic structures. In t...

Origin and Nature of Cognitive and Systematic Musicology: An Introduction

This paper gives an introduction to the origin and nature of cognitive and systematic musicology. A brief overview of the history of systematic musicology is presented and the developments are sketched that contributed to the rise of cognitive musicology. It is argued that the breakthrough of computing has offered many new opportunities to revisit the old problems of Gestalt perception and its associated theory. The paper closes with a perspective on future developments.

Inharmonic Sounds: Implications as to «Pitch», «Timbre» and «Consonance»

This paper relates the structure of certain types of inharmonic complex sounds such as produced by idiophones (gongs, bells, etc.) to perceptual observations as well as to models of pitch and timbre perception. Since most of the current models operate in the time domain focussing on the concept of periodicity, it is argued that perception of pitch of inharmonic sounds, in general, is more ambiguous because (quasi-)periodicity in many such signals is more difficult to detect. Periodicity typically deteriorates with increasing inharmonicity of spectral components while it is maximum in perfectly harmonic spectra. Thereby a clear relationship between the temporal structure of a signal as reflected by its time function and wave-shape, and its spectral composition can be established that is of relevance also as to perception of timbre and consonance.

Change and Continuity in Sound Analysis: A Review of Concepts in Regard to Musical Acoustics, Music Perception, and Transcription

Over the past decades, a broad range of software and hardware tools has become available suited to perform sound analysis both in the time domain and in the frequency. This chapter reviews a number of former and current concepts in regard to frequency measurement, melographic techniques and transcription, pitch perception and consonance as well as analysis of timbral parameters.

Sound, Pitches and Tuning of a Historic Carillon

The City of Bruges in Flanders owns one of the finest carillons in Europe. Of its 47 bells, 26 are historic specimens, cast by Joris Dumery (Georgius Du Mery) between 1742 and 1748. In 2010/11, the carillon underwent restoration including retuning as necessary. The present article reports the status of the 26 historic carillon bells as recorded by us in the years 1997–2000 prior to restoration. Since the original tuning of the bells has been assumed to be close to quarter-comma meantone temperament, the tuning is investigated both in regard to physical data and scaling (weight, diameter) as well as fundamental frequencies and spectral characteristics of the Dumery bells. Trajectories for the five so-called principal partials hum, prime, tierce, fifth and octave (or nominal) are established to check the smoothness of inner tuning of the 26 bells. From the fundamental frequencies, the tuning of the 26 Dumery bells to a musical scale is derived, and a matrix of fundamental frequencies shows all intervals that can be realized with these bells. A second parameter relevant for the tuning of (swinging and carillon) bells is the so-called strike note, which is first discussed with respect to concepts of pitch perception and then in regard to a possible meantone tuning. Finally, in continuation of previous experiments which demonstrated ambiguity of pitch perception in subjects listening to bell sounds we conducted two small experiments one of which addresses the number of pitches subjects distinguish per bell sound while the other explores identification of musical intervals realized with sounds from the historic Dumery bells. Findings are evaluated in regard to perception and musical issues.

Fourier-Time-Transformation (FTT), Analysis of Sound and Auditory Perception

The Fourier/time transformation (FTT) has been proposed by Ernst Terhardt (1985, 1992, 1998) as a tool for analysis and representation of audio signals such as speech and music. Terhardt (1985) issued the FTT in the context of an updated interpretation of the Fourier transform (FT) and with the aim to develop a transform suited to perform time/frequency analysis comparable to that of the mammalian auditory system. FTT is re-examined in this chapter and some other methods relevant for musical acoustics and psychoacoustics such as the short-time Fourier transform (STFT), autoregressive spectral modeling (AR) and Wavelet transform (WT) are presented in a brief survey for comparison, and are illustrated by some examples. Different approaches to time/frequency analysis are also viewed as to their power with respect to the so-called uncertainty product Δt Δf.

Klanganalysen an Arp Schnitger-Orgeln

Die Erforschung klanglicher Parameter bei historischen Instrumenten ist langst als wichtig erkannt und konkret seit langerem betrieben worden. Ein Ausloser solcher Forschungen war der oft als einzigartig und unubertroffen beschriebene Klang beruhmter Meistergeigen (Stradivari, Amati, Guaneri, etc.) sowie von Kielinstrumenten (z.B. Cembali aus der Ruckers-Werkstatt oder von Johann Andreas Silbermann), den man in zeitgenossischen Instrumenten zu „kopieren‟ oder jedenfalls anzunahern versucht. Da Konstruktion, Material und Klang uber zahlreiche Parameter miteinander verbunden sind, setzen Bemuhungen, historische Instrumente nachzubauen, die Untersuchung auch der klanglichen Merkmale voraus1. Ein weiteres Antriebsmoment ist in den als „historische Auffiihrungspraxis‟ umschriebenen Bestrebungen zu sehen, die im Ergebnis darauf hinzielen, Musik so zu Gehor zu bringen, wie sie in fruheren Jahrhunderten bzw. stilistischen Epochen mutmaslich erklungen ist. Eine in diesem Betracht „authentische‟ Auffiihrung bzw. Einspielung erfordert nicht nur eingehende Kenntnis des Repertoires und der ihm angemessenen Spieltechniken, der Verzierungspraxis usw., sondern auch den Einsatz solcher Klangwerkzeuge, wie sie den damaligen Komponisten und Musikern zur Verfugung standen.

Sensation of Sound Intensity and Perception of Loudness

This chapter is on sensation of sound intensity and perception of loudness. Since some of the relevant matter (on scaling concepts of loudness) has been presented in Chap. 30, and because a considerable portion of research on loudness is done outside musical contexts (namely, in industrial and environmental noise control as well as in audiology), this chapter condenses facts and models more than the previous two on pitch and timbre respectively. Section 33.1 of this chapter offers the physical and physiological basis of sound intensity sensation while Sect. 33.2 discusses features of some models of loudness sensation that have been established in psychoacoustics over the past decades. Since these models were originally designed for stationary sound signals and levels, and have been tested mostly in lab situations, they cannot adequately cover a range of real-world sound types found in natural or technical environments. In music genres such as techno presented in discos, or heavy metal performed in live music venues or at open air festivals to audiences at very high sound pressure levels, sound is heavily processed in regard to dynamics and spectral energy, which calls for appropriate measurement and assessment of sensory effects. Different from perception of pitch (where samples of subjects respond more or less in similar ways to certain types of sound signals), perception of loudness shows a high degree of variability even within groups of musically trained subjects reflecting their musical background and preferences (Sect. 33.3). Recent empirical evidence demonstrates that subjects judge loudness for various musical genres on a category scale (from very soft to very loud), however, the center (relative to loudness level and loudness scales) and the range of each category differ considerably, for individual subjects.