Alex C. Garn

Parental Influences on the Academic Motivation of Gifted Students: A Self- Determination Theory Perspective

The home environment that parents provide their gifted children can have a significant impact on academic motivation, yet limited research has focused on this topic. Self-determination theory, a comprehensive framework of motivation, was used in the current study to explore two research questions: (a) What attitudes do parents of gifted students have toward the academic motivation of their children? (b) What approaches do parents of gifted students use at home to develop academic motivation? Interviews with 30 parents of gifted children from across the United States revealed three higher order themes including Parents as Experts, Scaffolding, and Behavior Modification. From a self-determination theory perspective, results suggest that despite good intentions, the parents of this study were inconsistent in providing home environments that support their children’s development of internalized forms of academic motivation.

Approach-Avoidance Motivational Profiles in Early Adolescents to the PACER Fitness Test.

The use of fitness testing is a practical means for measuring components of healthrelated fitness, but there is currently substantial debate over the motivating effects of these tests. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the cross-fertilization of achievement and friendship goal profiles for early adolescents involved in the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Participants were 214 middle school students who reported their achievement goals, social goals, and preparation effort toward a PACER test. Performance was also examined. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the six-factor approach–avoidance model. Cluster analysis highlighted three distinct profiles. The high-goals profile group reported significantly higher amounts of effort put forth in preparation for the PACER test. Our findings suggest that the cross-fertilization of approach and avoidance achievement and social goals can provide important information about effort and performance on fitness testing in middle school physical education.

High Ability Students’ Voice on Learning Motivation

This study used a self-determination theory lens to investigate high ability learners’ motivational experiences. Participants were 15 high ability youth involved in a summer learning camp for gifted students. Two major themes emerged from qualitative data analysis: (a) The Fun Factor of Learning and (b) The Rewards and Pressures of Good Grades. Fun learning experiences (i.e., intrinsic motivation, identified regulation) occurred when parents and teachers tailored learning activities to personalized interests and goals. Likewise, learning choices helped increase intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Motivational experiences were decreased when parents exerted high levels of pressure on academic outcomes (e.g., grades): therefore, introjected regulation could be especially relevant in understanding motivation in high ability learners.

A qualitative analysis of individual interest in middle school physical education: perspectives of early-adolescents

Background: Past research has revealed the positive impact that interest development can have on achievement outcomes with early-adolescents in physical education (PE). Interest is considered a psychological state of engaging and willingness to reengage in specific content that develops over time; however, little work to date has examined interest development over time using methods that obtain in-depth perspectives of students and intimate knowledge of the context. Purpose: To examine the factors early-adolescent students report to have an impact on the development of individual interest in PE and explore how students view the relationship between individual interest and learning in PE. Participants: A total of eight students from one middle school class in the Midwestern United States were purposefully sampled based on their different levels of individual interest toward PE. There was an even split between males (n = 4) and females (n = 4) and students were mostly Caucasian. The setting consisted of a traditional multi-activity curriculum that stressed large-sided team sports and recreational games. Data collection: Formal and informal interviews, field note observations, and survey data were collected over an 18-week period. Data analysis: Data were analyzed from a naturalistic perspective using inductive analysis and constant comparison. Multiple procedures were used to establish trustworthiness of the data including triangulation, peer debriefing, searches for disconfirming evidence, and an extended period of time in the context as a non-participant observer. Findings: Opportunities to practice and perceived competence were the main factors that students deemed as important ingredients to developing individual interest. Students viewed learning as an integral component for developing individual interest, but suggested that meaningful learning did not often take place during the semester. Characteristics of the curriculum and pedagogy were central to the students’ reports and are discussed further in relation to individual interest. Conclusions: Results from this study build on past interest motivation research in many ways. First, while past studies have identified actual skill as an important component for building individual interest, the students of this study reported that perceived competence is also essential. Furthermore, findings revealed how traditional multi-activity curriculum can create barriers to creating individual interest. Finally, students discussed learning as a crucial element in developing individual interest, but did not view their PE class as an environment where meaningful learning occurred. Moving toward longer and more meaningful curricular units of instruction such as Sport Education could enhance the development of individual interest with early adolescents.

Effective Teaching in Physical Education: Using Transportation Metaphors to Assess Our Status and Drive Our Future

In our reflection on Rinks (2013), McKenzie and Lounsberys (2013), and Wards (2013) characterizations of effective teaching in physical education (PE), 2 themes emerged that permeate these diverse perspectives: policy and accountability. In our commentary, we focus our initial discussion on the implications that policy and accountability have on effective teaching in PE. A thread running through this discussion is the feasibility of promoting effective teaching in the context of current policy and demands for accountability. We provide an argument that school PE is in peril and draw parallels to previous commentaries of research on teaching. We conclude with comments highlighting steps that have the potential to revitalize school PE as a core element in school curricula. We argue that if school PE is to survive, it is critical that we advocate for policies that promote and support quality daily PE. To do that, we must convince decision makers that PE makes a valuable contribution to the school curriculum using data-based evidence. We must also recruit quality students into PE teacher education programs who are dynamic leaders in schools and communities. Finally, researchers in effective teaching in PE must make meaningful contributions to the broader field and work with interdisciplinary research teams to address issues related to promoting physical activity through education.

Resiliency, Control, Enjoyment and Physical Activity in African American High School Students

Resiliency, Control, Enjoyment and Physical Activity in African American High School Students The purpose of this study was to explain physical activity (PA) using Block and Blocks (2006a) ego-resiliency and ego-control theory along with measures of self-control and PA enjoyment. One-hundred and seventy-seven African American high school students from a large Midwest inner city participated. In general, cluster analyses provided support for the importance of ego-resiliency and PA enjoyment as there were strongly affiliated with differential amounts of PA. Ego-control and self-control were also important in cluster formation but related to PA in somewhat unexpected ways.

The role and impact of student leadership on participants in a healthy eating and physical activity programme

Objective: In the USA there are rising rates of obesity among children, at least in part due to unhealthy eating and physical inactivity. Implementing school-based health interventions with elementary school children focused on youth empowerment could lead to improved health environments and behaviours. The purpose of the present study was to examine elementary students’ perceptions of participating in a student-led school health improvement team. Empowerment theory guided the research, specifically the concept of including participants in programming to identify possible individual-level outcomes. Design: Qualitative research. Setting: One US elementary school formed a student-led school health improvement team, focusing on healthy eating and physical activity, comprising nine students and two adult co-advisers. Methods: Data collection included 19 individual interviews with students and advisers and four non-participant observations of team meetings and reform initiatives. To ensure the perceptions of the research participants’ guided data analysis, analytic induction was undertaken using grounded theory. Results: Students and advisers shared similar perceptions that the student-led health reform process had a significant impact on several areas of students’ life skills and health behaviours. Specifically, they identified improved leadership skills (assuming responsibility, self-confidence in public speaking and pride in becoming healthy role models) and health behaviours (dietary intake and physical activity) as outcomes of their emerging identities as health reform leaders. Conclusion: This study documented previously identified psychological empowerment outcomes, such as perceived control and proactive health behaviours, and additional positive outcomes, such as peer modelling. The findings suggest that team membership may positively impact on young people, which could support the inclusion of students as leaders in future interventions.

Assessing the Eating Behaviors of Low-income, Urban Adolescents

Abstract Background: There is a need for instruments that can accurately determine the effectiveness of nutrition interventions targeting low-income, inner-city adolescents. Purpose: To examine the development of a valid and reliable eating behavior scale (EBS) for use in school-based nutrition interventions in urban, inner-city communities dominated by high poverty, food insecurity and academic underperformance with primarily minority residents. Methods: The research was conducted with 387 minority adolescents in an inner-city urban school. Reliability was determined by administering the EBS to students twice on the same day, five hours apart. Convergent validity was determined by comparing the results of the EBS with 24-hour recalls conducted by trained dietitians. Spearman correlations and kappa statistics were used. Results: The EBS produced acceptable validity and reliability indices. Discussion: The EBS, designed specifically for use with minority urban adolescents who are both economically deprived and attend schools with documented low performance, provided preliminary evidence that it could produce valid and reliable scores with this population. Translation to Health Education Practice: The EBS which is easy for students to use and creates minimal disruption of instructional time can be used by researchers or practitioners to assess eating behaviors in low-income, minority adolescents.

Why inner-city high-school students attend after-school physical activity clubs

Objective: The population of young people most vulnerable to low levels of physical activity (e.g. urban/minority/low socio-economic status/female/non-athletes) often has the least access to physical activity opportunities and resources. It has been suggested that a comprehensive, school-based approach, including prudent use of time before, during and after the school day may be an effective way to increase overall physical activity, but little is known about why urban students voluntarily participate in these extracurricular programmes. Using social cognitive theory as a framework, this study examines urban high-school students’ rationale for attending after-school physical activity clubs designed to provide fun, safe, supportive places to do physical activities with friends. Design and setting: Qualitative study in an urban school district. Method: Over a 2-year period, adult leaders within 14 inner-city schools in a large urban district in the Midwest USA held 938 physical activity club sessions targeting traditionally inactive youth to promote non-competitive physical activity. Interviews with student participants (n = 278) and researcher field observations (n = 115) were used as primary data sources. Results: Three primary themes emerged to explain the voluntary participation of high-school students in after-school physical activity clubs: (a) social affiliation, especially group identification and establishing relationships with adult leaders and likeminded peers; (b) health and performance, including improving physical health and performance in other athletic endeavours; and (c) the ‘right’ types of activities and focus, including those that were student-centred, non-competitive and culturally relevant. Conclusion: Creation and sustainability of successful inner-city physical activity clubs will largely hinge upon the capitalisation on an understanding of the motivations of an urban student population.

A Model of Parental Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control in Academically Gifted Students.

This study investigated achievement-oriented parent socialization as it pertains to school avoidance in a sample of gifted students. A serial mediation model examining relationships among parental achievement-oriented psychological control (APC), fear of academic failure, academic amotivation, and school avoidance was tested. The sample included 230 gifted youth (Mage = 13.36; SD = 1.67) involved in summer programming. After factor structure and internal consistency of the instruments were confirmed, separate mediation models were analyzed for mother and father psychological control. In both models, bootstrap evidence supported the indirect relationship between parental APC and school avoidance (R2 = .29 mother/.29 father) through fear of academic failure (R2 = .18/.17) and academic amotivation (R2 = .10/.08). Many researchers of parental socialization and motivation focus on the brighter side of being gifted. Findings of this study follow a darker path of controlling socialization and avoidance-based psychological constructs that create problems in a subset of gifted students.