Alexa Spence

The psychological distance of climate change

Avoiding dangerous climate change is one of the most urgent social risk issues we face today and understanding related public perceptions is critical to engaging the public with the major societal transformations required to combat climate change. Analyses of public perceptions have indicated that climate change is perceived as distant on a number of different dimensions. However, to date there has been no in-depth exploration of the psychological distance of climate change. This study uses a nationally representative British sample in order to systematically explore and characterize each of the four theorized dimensions of psychological distance--temporal, social, and geographical distance, and uncertainty--in relation to climate change. We examine how each of these different aspects of psychological distance relate to each other as well as to concerns about climate change and sustainable behavior intentions. Results indicate that climate change is both psychologically distant and proximal in relation to different dimensions. Lower psychological distance was generally associated with higher levels of concern, although perceived impacts on developing countries, as an indicator of social distance, was also significantly related to preparedness to act on climate change. Our findings clearly point to the utility of risk communication techniques designed to reduce psychological distance. However, highlighting the potentially very serious distant impacts of climate change may also be useful in promoting sustainable behavior, even among those already concerned.

Creating a national citizen engagement process for energy policy

This paper examines some of the science communication challenges involved when designing and conducting public deliberation processes on issues of national importance. We take as our illustrative case study a recent research project investigating public values and attitudes toward future energy system change for the United Kingdom. National-level issues such as this are often particularly difficult to engage the public with because of their inherent complexity, derived from multiple interconnected elements and policy frames, extended scales of analysis, and different manifestations of uncertainty. With reference to the energy system project, we discuss ways of meeting a series of science communication challenges arising when engaging the public with national topics, including the need to articulate systems thinking and problem scale, to provide balanced information and policy framings in ways that open up spaces for reflection and deliberation, and the need for varied methods of facilitation and data synthesis that permit access to participants’ broader values. Although resource intensive, national-level deliberation is possible and can produce useful insights both for participants and for science policy.

Exploring early public responses to geoengineering

Proposals for geoengineering the Earths climate are prime examples of emerging or ‘upstream’ technologies, because many aspects of their effectiveness, cost and risks are yet to be researched, and in many cases are highly uncertain. This paper contributes to the emerging debate about the social acceptability of geoengineering technologies by presenting preliminary evidence on public responses to geoengineering from two of the very first UK studies of public perceptions and responses. The discussion draws upon two datasets: qualitative data (from an interview study conducted in 42 households in 2009), and quantitative data (from a subsequent nationwide survey (n=1822) of British public opinion). Unsurprisingly, baseline awareness of geoengineering was extremely low in both cases. The data from the survey indicate that, when briefly explained to people, carbon dioxide removal approaches were preferred to solar radiation management, while significant positive correlations were also found between concern about climate change and support for different geoengineering approaches. We discuss some of the wider considerations that are likely to shape public perceptions of geoengineering as it enters the media and public sphere, and conclude that, aside from technical considerations, public perceptions are likely to prove a key element influencing the debate over questions of the acceptability of geoengineering proposals.

Public Perceptions of Energy Choices: The Influence of Beliefs about Climate Change and the Environment

Past research has documented high levels of public concern for risks relating to nuclear power, with opposition to nuclear energy particularly being linked with general environmental concern. However recent UK energy policy, and other debates worldwide, has led to a repositioning of nuclear power as a ‘low carbon’ electricity source with potential benefits for mitigating climate change. Whilst many previous studies have examined perceptions of climate change and nuclear energy separately, this large British public attitude survey explores relationships between the two as well as with perceptions of other energy sources. Both general environmental concern and concerns about climate change were linked with positive evaluations of renewables and negative evaluations of nuclear power. We conclude that, despite the policy positioning of nuclear power as a low carbon electricity source, most people concerned about climate change continue to perceive nuclear negatively, something partially explained by general environmental concerns.

Psychology, Climate Change & Sustainable Bahaviour

This year marks an important crossroads for climate policy. Most member states of the European Union have accepted the case for major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. In Britain, for example, the new Committee on Climate Change has recommended at least an 80 percent cut in national emissions by 2050. 1 In the United States, the inauguration of the Obama administration also signals a more proactive policy agenda, with the new president calling for an 83 percent reduction in 2005 greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. 2 Finally, with the hope that developing nations such as India and China will join future international agreements, the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change meet in Copenhagen this December to discuss and frame international climate policy and cooperation for many years to come.

Implicit attitudes towards genetically modified (GM) foods: A comparison of context-free and context-dependent evaluations

Past research on attitudes towards GM food has focused on measuring explicit attitudes. Here we compared implicit attitudes towards GM foods with explicit attitudes towards GM foods. We used the Go No-Go task to investigate context-free implicit evaluations of GM foods and compared these with evaluations made in the context of ordinary and organic foods. Semantic differential scales were used to evaluate explicit attitudes towards GM foods. As expected, explicit attitudes towards GM foods were found to be neutral. However, contrary to our hypotheses, participants were found to hold positive, rather than neutral, implicit attitudes towards GM foods when these were assessed in a context free manner. In addition, neutral implicit attitudes were found when attitudes were assessed in the context of ordinary or organic foods, again contrasting with our hypotheses. These results imply that implicit attitudes towards GM food are more positive than anticipated and may lead to approach behaviour towards such products. Thus, given the choice, consumers are likely to accept GM food although other incentives may be needed if alternative foods are available.

Experience of extreme weather affects climate change mitigation and adaptation responses

The winter of 2013/2014 saw a series of severe storms hit the UK, leading to widespread flooding, a major emergency response and extensive media exposure. Previous research indicates that experiencing extreme weather events has the potential to heighten engagement with climate change, however the process by which this occurs remains largely unknown, and establishing a clear causal relationship from experience to perceptions is methodologically challenging. The UK winter flooding offered a natural experiment to examine this question in detail. We compare individuals personally affected by flooding (n = 162) to a nationally representative sample (n = 975). We show that direct experience of flooding leads to an overall increased salience of climate change, pronounced emotional responses and greater perceived personal vulnerability and risk perceptions. We also present the first evidence that direct flooding experience can give rise to behavioural intentions beyond individual sustainability actions, including support for mitigation policies, and personal climate adaptation in matters unrelated to the direct experience.

Predicting behaviour towards genetically modified food using implicit and explicit attitudes

The predictive validity of implicit and explicit attitudes is a central question in social psychological research with important theoretical and empirical ramifications. Three main patterns of combining implicit and explicit attitudes to predict behaviour have been postulated. They are, double dissociation (in which implicit and explicit attitudes predict spontaneous and deliberate behaviour respectively), additive (in which implicit and explicit attitudes both predict variance in behaviour) and interactive (in which implicit and explicit attitudes combine to predict behaviour). These models were tested in this study using a structural equation modelling approach utilising three different measures of behaviour (of varying spontaneity) towards genetically modified (GM) food. The additive pattern, in which implicit and explicit attitudes both predict variance in behaviour, was found to best fit the data. In addition, all behaviour measures indicated that the majority of participants were willing to try GM food in some situations.

Spontaneous Evaluations: Similarities and Differences between the Affect Heuristic and Implicit Attitudes

The affect heuristic and implicit attitudes are two separate concepts that have arisen within different literatures but that have a number of similarities. This paper compares these two constructs with the aim of clarifying exactly what they are and how these relate to one another. By comparing and contrasting the affect heuristic and implicit attitudes we conclude that the “affect pool” of images tagged with feelings referred to within the affect heuristic literature may be equivalent to the construct of implicit attitudes. Further to this, the affect heuristic itself could be considered as a specific subtype of spontaneous process that is driven by implicit attitudes. We propose that each of the implicit attitude and affect heuristic constructs could be further developed through the examination and comparison of existing literatures surrounding the other. Implications for future research are outlined.

Acceptability of blood and blood substitutes.

Alternatives to donor blood have been developed in part to meet increasing demand. However, new biotechnologies are often associated with increased perceptions of risk and low acceptance. This paper reviews developments of alternatives and presents data, from a field‐based experiment in the UK and Holland, on the risks and acceptance of donor blood and alternatives (chemical, genetically modified and bovine). UK groups perceived all substitutes as riskier than the Dutch. There is a negative association between perceived risk and acceptability. Solutions to increasing acceptance are discussed in terms of implicit attitudes, product naming and emotional responses.