Alexander M. Holsinger

The Risk Principle in Action: What Have We Learned From 13,676 Offenders and 97 Correctional Programs?:

Over the recent past there have been several meta-analyses and primary studies that support the importance of the risk principle. Oftentimes these studies, particularly the meta-analyses, are limited in their ability to assess how the actual implementation of the risk principle by correctional agencies affects effectiveness in reducing recidivism. Furthermore, primary studies are typically limited to the assessment of one or two programs, which again limits the types of analyses conducted. This study, using data from two independent studies of 97 correctional programs, investigates how adherence to the risk principle by targeting offenders who are higher risk and varying length of stay and services by level of risk affects program effectiveness in reducing recidivism. Overall, this research indicates that for residential and nonresidential programs, adhering to the risk principle has a strong relationship with a program’s ability to reduce recidivism.

Risk/Need Assessment, Offender Classification, and the Role of Childhood Abuse

Over the last several decades, the use of risk/need assessments has had a great impact on correctional classification and treatment decisions. One instrument that is now being used by many correctional agencies in the United States is the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R). Criticisms of the LSI-R include failure to consider physical and sexual abuse as risk factors and failure to modify the instrument for the assessment of female offenders. Using a sample of 442 offenders (317 male and 125 female), this research investigates (a) the validity of the LSI-R for both females and males and (b) the relationship between childhood abuse, the LSI-R, and recidivism rates. Analyses indicated that the LSI-R is a valid (predictive) instrument for this sample of female offenders and that a history of prior abuse fails to add to the prediction of reincarceration, once risk is controlled for using the LSI-R. Implications for further research are discussed.

The Effect of Drug Court Programming on Recidivism: the Cincinnati Experience:

The impetus of the drug court movement can be traced to a number of factors, such as the social and organizational costs of imprisonment and the literature surrounding the effectiveness of community-based treatment. Regardless of its origins, however, drug courts have altered the way in which court systems process drug cases and respond to drug-dependent offenders. Evaluations of U.S. drug courts are beginning to emerge, and although the outcome results are encouraging, not all courts are showing a reduction in rearrest rates. Despite the rapid expansion of drug courts, their growing prevalence, and popularity, little is known about the drug court models ability to achieve its objectives in a variety of circumstances. This research adds to the literature on drug courts by examining the effect of drug court programming on multiple indicators of recidivism. Results of the study are mixed; however, the drug court treatment group did perform better when examining arrest for a drug-related offense.

Differential Pathways to Violence and Self-Injurious Behavior: African American and White Girls in the Juvenile Justice System

Since the early 1990s, research, largely from a feminist perspective, has been devoted to identifying the “gender-specific needs” of delinquent girls. This article explores racial differences between girls and how these differences may affect the commission of violent behavior and self-injurious behavior. Self-report data were collected from 163 girls incarcerated in Ohio in 1998. Data were collected on a wide range of variables, including potentially criminogenic areas such as abuse, antisocial attitudes, drug use, type of parenting received, self-esteem, family experiences, and mental health. The findings indicate that some of these variables differ significantly by race. Furthermore, these criminogenic areas are investigated in order to test their relationship to self-reports of violence, self-injurious behavior, suicide attempts, and overall delinquency. These models are then examined by race with findings that demonstrate the fallacy of representing girls as a homogeneous group. Of particular interest is how differently girls respond to abuse, based on race.

Ethnicity, gender, and the Level of Service Inventory-Revised

Abstract Offender assessment and classification is becoming an increasingly important part of correctional supervision and intervention. Over the last several decades, several different methods and “generations” of offender classification have emerged. Of most value appear to be third-generation, actuarial, dynamic risk/need assessments. With any new correctional strategy, however, there is a need to investigate the use of these risk/need assessments on offender subgroups in order to inform issues, such as reliability and prevalence of criminogenic risk factors. The present study utilized data that were gathered using the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R). Results and comparisons of these assessments were investigated and presented for Native American and non-Native American offenders as well as male and female offenders. Discussion of the results, implications, and recommendations for further research are presented.

The effects of aggressive policing of disorder on serious crime

This paper adds to a growing body of research which explores the relationship between aggressive police strategies and serious crime. For one month, police enforced disorder crime in a small section of one community. An interrupted time series analysis was utilized to evaluate the effects of this intervention on robbery and aggravated burglary in a target area and a control area. The strategy was found to be unrelated to levels of aggravated burglary and robbery in the target area. There was no spatial displacement of crime. Explanations for the findings are offered.

A random study of Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR): using core correctional practices in probation interactions

The recent application of the risk–need–responsivity (RNR) model, in conjunction with core correctional practices, has offered promising results. In the present study, supervision officers were trained in core correctional skills and the RNR model. Supervision officers were randomly assigned to training groups and provided audio recordings of interactions with clients to assess their use of learned skills. The current study utilizes taped interactions between officers and offenders, individual-level offender data, and outcome/recidivism data to investigate the impact of the training regimen, which is the core focus of this paper. Trained probation officers demonstrated greater use of the skills taught during training and their clients had lower failure rates. These findings suggest that providing Staff Training Aimed at Reducing Re-arrest (STARR) training to community supervision officers can impact the officers’ use of important correctional skills and improve client outcomes.

The federal Post Conviction Risk Assessment (PCRA): a construction and validation study.

Offender assessment has been and remains the cornerstone of effective community supervision. This article presents the development of and tests the predictive validity of a 4th-generation risk assessment instrument designed for U.S. probation. A large administrative data set was used to create the assessment instrument and conduct an initial validation. Subsequent data generated from officer-completed assessments were used to conduct a prospective validation. Finally, data from case vignettes scored by trained officers were used to test the interrater agreement of the assessment instrument. Overall, analysis revealed that the assessment instrument predicted rearrest reliably when using the assessment results based on administrative data or officer-completed assessments. Analysis also revealed high rates of interrater agreement. Recommendations for future research and policy implications are presented.

PCRA Revisited: Testing the Validity of the Federal Post Conviction Risk Assessment (PCRA)

The Post Conviction Risk Assessment (PCRA) was developed for use in the U.S. Probation System in 2009. Although previous publications have demonstrated the predictive validity of the PCRA using development and validation samples, this study uses assessments completed by U.S. probation officers on 113,281 offenders during the course of supervision. The current research assesses the PCRAs validity in predicting arrest for any new criminal conduct and arrest for violent offenses at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months. Bivariate and multivariate models were estimated based on race, gender, and ethnicity. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) values ranged between .70 and .77 depending on the subsample, outcome being predicted, and follow-up time. Overall, this research indicates that the PCRA predicts equally well across race, gender, and ethnicity and for differing follow-up time periods. In addition, the PCRA is a valid predictor of arrest for any criminal behavior and arrest for violent criminal behavior.

Predicting institutional misconduct using the Youth Level of Service/ Case Management Inventory

Offender assessment in corrections has advanced considerably over the last several decades. Currently, it is not uncommon to find correctional professionals using any number of objective standardized assessment instruments. While many of these instruments possess face validity as well as statistical predictive validity, more work is needed to test classification protocol on new populations, and in various correctional environments. The current paper investigates the predictive validity of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) within an institutional setting. Specifically, the composite score rendered from the YLS/CMI is used to predict institutional misconduct. The YLS/ CMI was found to effectively differentiate between two levels of offender risk/ need, and was significantly related to outcome using several different statistical techniques.