Alexander Zhivov

Towards a Net Zero Building Cluster Energy Systems Analysis for a Brigade Combat Team Complex

The Army is required by law (Energy Policy Act of 2005 [EPACT] 2005, U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 [EISA] 2007) to eliminate fossil fuel use in new and renovated facilities by 2030 and to reduce overall facility energy usage by 30% by 2015. Army policy is to achieve 25 net zero energy installations by 2025 and to achieve net zero energy (NZE) status for all installations by 2058. Achieving NZE will only be possible if an optimum mix of demand reduction and renewable sources are put in place at a community (installation) or building cluster scale. The Army runs what are essentially small campuses, or clusters of buildings on its installations. The Department of Energy (DOE) is focused on the national grid scale or on individual buildings, while the commercial focus is on retrofits to individual buildings There is a lack of tools and case studies that address dynamics of energy systems at the community scale. The Army’s future building energy requirements are a mixture of ultra-low and high energy intensity facilities. Achieving net zero energy economically in these clusters of buildings will require a seamless blend of energy conservation in individual buildings, combined with building systems automation, utility management and control, and power delivery systems with the capability to integrate onsite power generation (including from renewable energy sources) and energy storage. When buildings are handled individually each building is optimized for energy efficiency to the economic energy efficiency optimum and then renewables are added until the building is net zero. This process works for buildings with a low energy intensity process for its mission, such as barracks and administrative buildings. When the mission of the building requires high energy intensity such as in a dining facility, data center, etc., this optimization process either will not end up with a net zero energy building, or large amounts of renewables will be added resulting in the overall technical solution that is not cost effective. But when buildings are clustered together, after each building is designed to its economic energy efficient option, the building cluster is also energy optimized taking advantages of the diversification between energy intensities, scheduling, and waste energy streams utilization. The optimized cluster will minimize the amount of renewables needed to make the building cluster net zero. This paper describes this process and demonstrates it using as an example a cluster of buildings a Brigade Combat Team Complex at Fort Bliss, TX.Copyright

Energy performance optimization for Army installations

Buildings contribute to a large fraction of energy usage worldwide. In the United States alone, buildings consume about 40% of total energy expenditure, including 71% of electricity and 54% of natural gas. 1 The Army alone spends more than US

Planning Tools to Simulate and Optimize Neighborhood Energy Systems

1 billion for building-related energy expenses. The 2005 Energy Policy Act 2 requires that Federal facilities be built to achieve at least a 30% energy savings over the 2004 International Energy Code or ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004, as appropriate, and that energy efficient designs must be life-cycle cost effective. According to the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007), 3 new buildings and buildings undergoing major renovations shall be designed to reduce consumption of energy generated off-site or on-site using fossil fuels, as compared with such energy consumption by a similar building in fiscal year 2003 (FY03) as measured by Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) or Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) data from the Energy Information Agency, by 55% in 2010, 80% by 2020, and 100% by 2030. Current US research efforts focus on renewable energy sources and single-building energy efficiency, and pay little attention to integration and minimization of energy use in building communities, i.e. Army installations and university campuses. There is no over arching ‘power delivery/energy storage/demand’ architecture and methodology to accomplish this. This article describes the Net Zero fossil fuel-based energy optimization process and illustrates it with an example based on the results of study conducted for a cluster of buildings at Fort Irwin, CA. Application of the energy optimization process to new construction and major retrofit project shows17–20 that use of high performance building envelope (improved insulation and air tightness), advanced lighting strategies, and efficient HVAC systems results in significant energy savings (site and source) in Army buildings in all climates. When buildings built or retrofitted with a high performance building envelope, using advanced lighting systems and highly efficient ‘low exergy’ HVAC systems, reach a theoretical energy use minimum, the largest percentage of the remaining energy use in the building will be related to its ‘mission’: lighting, plug loads, and domestic hot water usage. Additional savings may be achieved with measures related to improved efficiency of power generation supplied to the building (co- and tri-generation) and use of energy supplied from renewable energy sources. The integrated energy solution recommended here demonstrates that vastly improved energy efficiency and GHG reduction are feasible in the context of a normal scale development using proven approaches from the USA and elsewhere. Moreover, the optimization process can be applied to new construction and major renovation of buildings and building clusters projects developed for low energy communities.

Net Zero Energy Master Planning Concept

This section introduces different energy modeling tools available in Europe and the USA for community energy master planning process varying from strategic Urban Energy Planning to more detailed Local Energy Planning. Two modeling tools used for Energy Master Planning of primarily residential communities, the 3D city model with CityGML, and the Net Zero Planner tool developed for the US Department of Defense installations are described in more details.

Toward Net Zero Energy Military Installations

This section introduces a concept and steps of successful Energy Master Planning process: setting energy goals and study boundaries, co-benefits of energy master planning, data required for establishing the Baseline, establishing the Base-Case and alternative scenarios, definition and implementation of a roadmap to net zero energy communities, its major milestones and setting targets for individual projects.

Deep Energy Retrofit (DER)

This Chapter provides definitions of Net Zero Energy Community and different energy parameters which can be used to define community specific energy system(s) optimization goals, i.e. primary and site energy, energy efficiency, energy security, energy independence and energy system resilience.

Airtightness in New and Retrofitted U.S. Army Buildings

Major building renovations provide an excellent opportunity to implement DER projects, since much of the work necessary to prepare the DER is to be done anyway: the building is typically vacated and is gutted; scaffolding is installed; single-pane and damaged windows are often scheduled for replacement; building envelope insulation is considered; and most of mechanical, electrical lighting, and energy conversion systems (e.g., boiler and chillers), and connecting ducts, pipes, and wires will be replaced anyway. Therefore, a significant sum of money covering the cost of energy-related scope of the renovation designed to meet minimum energy code. In this chapter an overview is provided on the major components to be considered in a Deep Energy Retrofit (DER), their cost effectiveness and findings from accomplished DER projects.

Practical Integration Approach and Whole Building Energy Simulation of Three Energy Efficient Building Technologies

Abstract The Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (ERDC-CERL) recently developed design/construction strategies that improve the energy efficiency, reduce the potential for mould, and improve indoor air quality in newly constructed buildings and buildings undergoing major renovations. ERDC-CERL performed building envelope leakage tests on Army facilities to test their general integrity and the effect of increased airtightness on building energy consumption. Results were used to develop airtightness criteria and performance requirements for new construction and major renovation projects, which have been included in Army design/construction strategies. Since 2009, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has implemented an airtightness requirement in all new construction and building enclosure renovation projects. Engineering and Construction Bulletin (ECB) 2012–16 set levels of airtightness for building enclosures at the material, assembly, and system level. ECB 2012–16 requires whole building air leakage tests to be conducted at completion of construction to verify the constructed air barrier system’s performance. The current Air Leakage Test Protocol for Building Envelopes developed by ERDC-CERL, the Air Barrier Association of America (ABAA), and other industrial partners was published in May 2012. This paper presents the results of airtightness tests before and after the new requirements were established, updated results for air leakage tests of more than 285 newly constructed and renovated large buildings, and a performance analysis of the design and construction process, air barrier materials, building use, and construction types. These data may support future decisions regarding airtightness levels to be adopted for commercial buildings.

Energy Systems Analyses for Ultralow Energy Communities

Rising energy costs and the desire to reduce energy consumption dictates a need for significantly improved building energy performance. Three technologies that have potential to save energy and improve sustainability of buildings are dedicated outdoor air systems (DOAS), radiant heating and cooling systems and tighter building envelopes. Although individually applying innovative technologies may incrementally improve building energy performance, more significant payoffs are realized when compatible technologies are integrated into an optimized system. Fortunately, DOAS, radiant heating and cooling systems and improved building envelopes are highly compatible. To investigate the energy savings potential of these three technologies, whole building energy simulations were performed for a barracks facility and an administration facility in 15 U.S. climate zones and 16 international locations. The baseline facilities were assumed to be existing buildings with VAV HVAC systems (admin facilities) and packaged HVAC systems (barracks facilities). The energy simulations were adjusted for each location for optimal energy and humidity control performance. The results show that the upgraded facilities realized total building energy savings between 20% and 40% and improved humidity control when compared to baseline building performance.Copyright

Working Towards Net Zero Energy at Fort Irwin, CA

In an increasingly energy constrained world, the Army and its logistic support envisions a future where its energy needs are designed and fulfilled by an elegant suite of ultra low energy solution options that can be tailored for adaptation at any Army installation or forward deployed base (FOB). Presently there is no overarching power delivery-energy storage-demand architecture and methodology to accomplish this. The Army’s present and future energy requirements are a mix of ultra-low and high energy intensity command and control facilities. Garrison Commanders must also have the capability to continuously adjust their ultra low energy suite in real time, by the tailoring and optimization of energy usage to accomplish strategic mission, security, and environmental goals. To address these issues requires the development of a properly designed and executed suite of ultra low energy systems that would enable adaptable, modular, scalable building-block power and thermal energy architecture so as to accommodate a full spectrum of local mission needs, from a few clustered facilities, an installation subsection, a full installation or deployed base. Accommodating this variability in an ultra-low energy environment will require a seamless blend of building automation, utility management and control systems, and power delivery systems with the capability to offer integration of onsite power, energy storage, and energy conservation. The controlling features embodied in the integrated suite of tools, systems analyses and methodologies, must not only optimize design but also day-to-day and hour-by-hour operation. What is envisioned is developing a prototype master plan for an ultra low energy community system that has been field tested at several specific Army campuses. A workshop of leading energy scientists and engineers has been convened to define the technology required to implement this vision. This paper presents the clarified summaries of their collective deliberations, and defines a way forward for a research program capable of achieving ultra low energy applications, for installations to deployed bases.