Alexandra Pitman

Effects of suicide bereavement on mental health and suicide risk

Between 48 million and 500 million people are thought to experience suicide bereavement every year. Over the past decade, increased policy attention has been directed towards suicide bereavement, but with little evidence to describe the effect of exposure or to provide appropriate responses. We used a systematic approach to carry out a narrative review of studies of the effect of suicide bereavement on mortality, mental health, and social functioning, and compared them with effects from other bereavements. We found 57 studies that satisfied strict inclusion criteria. Results from these studies suggested that exposure to suicide of a close contact is associated with several negative health and social outcomes, depending on an individuals relationship to the deceased. These effects included an increased risk of suicide in partners bereaved by suicide, increased risk of required admission to psychiatric care for parents bereaved by the suicide of an offspring, increased risk of suicide in mothers bereaved by an adult childs suicide, and increased risk of depression in offspring bereaved by the suicide of a parent. Some evidence was shown for increased rejection and shame in people bereaved by suicide across a range of kinship groups when data were compared with reports of relatives bereaved by other violent deaths. Policy recommendations for support services after suicide bereavement heavily rely on the voluntary sector with little input from psychiatric services to address described risks. Policymakers should consider how to strengthen health and social care resources for people who have been bereaved by suicide to prevent avoidable mortality and distress.

Suicide in young men

Suicide is second to only accidental death as the leading cause of mortality in young men across the world. Although suicide rates for young men have fallen in some high-income and middle-income countries since the 1990s, wider mortality measures indicate that rates remain high in specific regions, ethnic groups, and socioeconomic groups within those nations where rates have fallen, and that young men account for a substantial proportion of the economic cost of suicide. High-lethality methods of suicide are preferred by young men: hanging and firearms in high-income countries, pesticide poisoning in the Indian subcontinent, and charcoal-burning in east Asia. Risk factors for young men include psychiatric illness, substance misuse, lower socioeconomic status, rural residence, and single marital status. Population-level factors include unemployment, social deprivation, and media reporting of suicide. Few interventions to reduce suicides in young men have been assessed. Efforts to change help-seeking behaviour and to restrict access to frequently used methods hold the most promise.

Bereavement by suicide as a risk factor for suicide attempt: a cross-sectional national UK-wide study of 3432 young bereaved adults

Objectives US and UK suicide prevention strategies suggest that bereavement by the suicide of a relative or friend is a risk factor for suicide. However, evidence is lacking that the risk exceeds that of any sudden bereavement, is specific to suicide, or applies to peer suicide. We conducted the first controlled UK-wide study to test the hypothesis that young adults bereaved by suicide have an increased risk of suicidal ideation and suicide attempt compared with young adults bereaved by other sudden deaths. Design National cross-sectional study. Setting Staff and students at 37 UK higher educational institutions in 2010. Participants 3432 eligible respondents aged 18–40 exposed to sudden bereavement of a friend or relative after the age of 10. Exposures Bereavement by suicide (n=614), by sudden unnatural causes (n=712) and by sudden natural causes (n=2106). Primary outcome measures Incident suicidal ideation and suicide attempt. Findings Adults bereaved by suicide had a higher probability of attempting suicide (adjusted OR (AOR)=1.65; 95% CI 1.12 to 2.42; p=0.012) than those bereaved by sudden natural causes. There was no such increased risk in adults bereaved by sudden unnatural causes. There were no group differences in probability of suicidal ideation. The effect of suicide bereavement was similar whether bereaved participants were blood-related to the deceased or not. The significant association between bereavement by suicide and suicide attempt became non-significant when adding perceived stigma (AOR=1.11; 95% CI 0.74 to 1.67; p=0.610). When compared with adults bereaved by sudden unnatural causes, those bereaved by suicide did not show significant differences in suicide attempt (AOR=1.48; 95% CI 0.94 to 2.33; p=0.089). Conclusions Bereavement by suicide is a specific risk factor for suicide attempt among young bereaved adults, whether related to the deceased or not. Suicide risk assessment of young adults should involve screening for a history of suicide in blood relatives, non-blood relatives and friends.

Self-harm, Unintentional Injury, and Suicide in Bipolar Disorder During Maintenance Mood Stabilizer Treatment: A UK Population-Based Electronic Health Records Study

IMPORTANCE Self-harm is a prominent cause of morbidity in patients with bipolar disorder and is strongly associated with suicide. There is evolving evidence that lithium use may reduce suicidal behavior, in addition to concerns that the use of anticonvulsants may increase self-harm. Information is limited about the effects of antipsychotics when used as mood stabilizer treatment. Rates of unintentional injury are poorly defined in bipolar disorder, and understanding drug associations with this outcome may shed light on mechanisms for lithiums potential antisuicidal properties through reduction in impulsive aggression. OBJECTIVE To compare rates of self-harm, unintentional injury, and suicide in patients with bipolar disorder who were prescribed lithium, valproate sodium, olanzapine, or quetiapine fumarate. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This investigation was a propensity score (PS)-adjusted and PS-matched longitudinal cohort study in a nationally representative UK sample using electronic health records data collected between January 1, 1995, and December 31, 2013. Participants included all patients diagnosed as having bipolar disorder who were prescribed lithium, valproate, olanzapine, or quetiapine as maintenance mood stabilizer treatment. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The primary outcome was any form of self-harm. Secondary outcomes were unintentional injury and suicide. RESULTS Of the 14 396 individuals with a diagnosis of BPD, 6671 were included in the cohort, with 2148 prescribed lithium, 1670 prescribed valproate, 1477 prescribed olanzapine, and 1376 prescribed quetiapine as maintenance mood stabilizer treatment. Self-harm rates were lower in patients prescribed lithium (205; 95% CI, 175-241 per 10 000 person-years at risk [PYAR]) compared with those prescribed valproate (392; 95% CI, 334-460 per 10 000 PYAR), olanzapine (409; 95% CI, 345-483 per 10 000 PYAR), or quetiapine (582; 95% CI, 489-692 per 10 000 PYAR). This association was maintained after PS adjustment (hazard ratio [HR], 1.40; 95% CI, 1.12-1.74 for valproate, olanzapine, or quetiapine vs lithium) and PS matching (HR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.21-1.88). After PS adjustment, unintentional injury rates were lower for lithium compared with valproate (HR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.10-1.58) and quetiapine (HR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.07-1.69) but not olanzapine. The suicide rate in the cohort was 14 (95% CI, 9-21) per 10 000 PYAR. Although this rate was lower in the lithium group than for other treatments, there were too few events to allow accurate estimates. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Patients taking lithium had reduced self-harm and unintentional injury rates. This finding augments limited trial and smaller observational study results. It supports the hypothesis that lithium use reduces impulsive aggression in addition to stabilizing mood.

The stigma perceived by people bereaved by suicide and other sudden deaths: A cross-sectional UK study of 3432 bereaved adults

Objective To test the hypothesis that perceived stigma scores in young adults bereaved by suicide are significantly higher than in young adults bereaved by other sudden deaths, whether blood-related to the deceased or not. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional study of all staff and students aged 18–40 at 37 UK higher educational institutions in 2010, and identified 3432 respondents who had experienced a sudden bereavement of a close contact since reaching the age of 10, either due to sudden natural causes, sudden unnatural causes, or suicide. We used multivariable regression to compare scores on the stigma, shame, responsibility and guilt subscales of the Grief Experience Questionnaire, adjusting for socio-demographic factors and pre-bereavement psychopathology. Results People bereaved by suicide (n = 614) had higher stigma scores than people bereaved by sudden natural death (n = 2106; adjusted coefficient = 2.52; 95% CI = 2.13–2.90; p = < 0.001) and people bereaved by sudden unnatural death (n = 712; adjusted coefficient = 1.69; 95% CI = 1.25–2.13; p = < 0.001). Shame, responsibility and guilt scores were also significantly higher in people bereaved by suicide, whether compared with bereavement by sudden natural death or sudden unnatural death. Associations were not modified by whether the bereaved was blood-related to the deceased or not. Conclusions Stigma was perceived more acutely by the relatives and friends of those who died by suicide than those bereaved by other causes of sudden natural or sudden unnatural death. Their high levels of perceived stigma, shame, responsibility and guilt require qualitative investigation to identify whether these grief dimensions limit social functioning, help-seeking behaviour and/or support offered.

Cross-cultural attitudes to help-seeking among individuals who are suicidal: new perspective for policy-makers

World Mental Health Survey data demonstrate that a high proportion of people who are suicidal receive no treatment and that, contrary to previous assumptions, attitudes to treatment constitute greater barriers to help-seeking than do stigma or structural/financial constraints. We explore how suicide-prevention policy-makers might respond to Bruffaerts et als findings.

10-y risks of death and emergency re-admission in adolescents hospitalised with violent, drug- or alcohol-related, or self-inflicted injury: a population-based cohort study

Background Hospitalisation for adversity-related injury (violent, drug/alcohol-related, or self-inflicted injury) has been described as a “teachable moment”, when intervention may reduce risks of further harm. Which adolescents are likely to benefit most from intervention strongly depends on their long-term risks of harm. We compared 10-y risks of mortality and re-admission after adversity-related injury with risks after accident-related injury. Methods and Findings We analysed National Health Service admissions data for England (1 April 1997–31 March 2012) for 10–19 y olds with emergency admissions for adversity-related injury (violent, drug/alcohol-related, or self-inflicted injury; n = 333,009) or for accident-related injury (n = 649,818). We used Kaplan–Meier estimates and Cox regression to estimate and compare 10-y post-discharge risks of death and emergency re-admission. Among adolescents discharged after adversity-related injury, one in 137 girls and one in 64 boys died within 10 y, and 54.2% of girls and 40.5% of boys had an emergency re-admission, with rates being highest for 18–19 y olds. Risks of death were higher than in adolescents discharged after accident-related injury (girls: age-adjusted hazard ratio 1.61, 95% CI 1.43–1.82; boys: 2.13, 95% CI 1.98–2.29), as were risks of re-admission (girls: 1.76, 95% CI 1.74–1.79; boys: 1.41, 95% CI 1.39–1.43). Risks of death and re-admission were increased after all combinations of violent, drug/alcohol-related, and self-inflicted injury, but particularly after any drug/alcohol-related or self-inflicted injury (i.e., with/without violent injury), for which age-adjusted hazard ratios for death in boys ranged from 1.67 to 5.35, compared with 1.25 following violent injury alone (girls: 1.09 to 3.25, compared with 1.27). The main limitation of the study was under-recording of adversity-related injuries and misclassification of these cases as accident-related injuries. This misclassification would attenuate the relative risks of death and re-admission for adversity-related compared with accident-related injury. Conclusions Adolescents discharged after an admission for violent, drug/alcohol-related, or self-inflicted injury have increased risks of subsequent harm up to a decade later. Introduction of preventive strategies for reducing subsequent harm after admission should be considered for all types of adversity-related injury, particularly for older adolescents.

Support received after bereavement by suicide and other sudden deaths: a cross-sectional UK study of 3432 young bereaved adults

Objective To test the hypothesis that people bereaved by suicide are less likely to receive formal or informal support than people bereaved by other causes of sudden death. Design National cross-sectional study. Setting Adults working or studying at any UK higher education institution (HEI) in 2010. Participants A total of 3432 eligible respondents aged 18–40 years bereaved by the sudden death of a close friend or relative, sampled from approximately 659 572 bereaved and non-bereaved staff and students at 37 of 164 UK HEIs invited to participate. Exposures Bereavement by suicide (n=614; 18%), by sudden unnatural causes (n=712; 21%) and by sudden natural causes (n=2106; 61%). Main outcome measures Receipt of formal and informal support postbereavement; timing of valued support. Results 21% (725/3432) of our sample of bereaved adults reported receiving no formal or informal bereavement support, with no evidence for group differences. People bereaved by suicide were less likely to have received informal support than those bereaved by sudden natural causes (adjusted OR (AOR)=0.79; 95% CI 0.64 to 0.98) or unnatural causes (AOR=0.74; 95% CI 0.58 to 0.96) but did not differ from either comparison group on receipt of formal support. People bereaved by suicide were less likely to have received immediate support (AOR=0.73; 95% CI 0.59 to 0.90) and more likely to report delayed receipt of support (AOR=1.33; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.64) than people bereaved by sudden natural causes. Associations were not modified by gender, or age bereaved, but became non-significant when adjusting for stigma. Conclusions People bereaved by suicide are less likely to receive informal support than people bereaved by other causes of sudden death and are more likely to perceive delays in accessing any support. This is concerning given their higher risk of suicide attempt and the recommendations within suicide prevention strategies regarding their need for support. Study registration http://www.ucl.ac.uk/psychiatry/bereavementstudy/

Cardiovascular Screening of People With Severe Mental Illness in England: Views of Service Users and Providers

OBJECTIVE In England national clinical guidelines recommend annual screening for cardiovascular risk factors among individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder within primary care supported by efforts to promote healthy behaviors by secondary psychiatric services. This study elicited the views of primary and specialty mental health care staff and service users about such service arrangements and barriers to implementation. METHODS Surveys were mailed to a representative cross-section of service users, community mental health team (CMHT) staff, and primary care staff in Western England and London. RESULTS Surveys were completed by 227 service users, 143 primary care staff, and 166 CMHT staff. A majority of staff stated that cardiovascular disease screening and risk reduction work were important, felt that this work was best accomplished in primary care settings, and anticipated good uptake among service users. More than 80% of service users viewed cardiovascular screening favorably, but 30% had not been screened in the past year. The proportion of service users prepared to make healthy changes in their lifestyle varied from 37% to 51%, depending on the change contemplated, but many cited difficulty traveling (35%), time pressures (28%), and a distaste for courses or group work (23%) as barriers to attending courses in healthy living. CONCLUSIONS The obstacles to service identified by this study reinforce the importance of providing incentives for both providers and users of services to improve implementation of national clinical guidelines on mental illness.

Perceived Stigma of Sudden Bereavement as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Thoughts and Suicide Attempt: Analysis of British Cross-Sectional Survey Data on 3387 Young Bereaved Adults

The sudden death of a friend or relative, particularly by suicide, is a risk factor for suicide. People who experience sudden bereavement report feeling highly stigmatised by the loss, potentially influencing access to support. We assessed whether perceived stigma following sudden bereavement is associated with suicidal thoughts and suicide attempt. We analysed cross-sectional survey data on 3387 young adults bereaved by the sudden death of a close contact. We tested the association of high versus low perceived stigma (on the stigma sub-scale of the Grief Experience Questionnaire) with post-bereavement suicidal ideation and suicide attempt, using random effects logistic regression, adjusting for socio-demographic factors, pre-bereavement psychopathology, and mode of sudden bereavement (natural causes/unnatural causes/suicide). Subjects with high perceived stigma scores were significantly more likely to report post-bereavement suicidal thoughts (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.74; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.93–3.89) and suicide attempt (AOR = 2.73; 95% CI = 2.33–3.18) than those with low stigma scores. People who feel highly stigmatised by a sudden bereavement are at increased risk of suicidal thoughts and suicide attempt, even taking into account prior suicidal behaviour. General practitioners, bereavement counsellors, and others who support people bereaved suddenly, should consider inquiring about perceived stigma, mental wellbeing, and suicidal thoughts, and directing them to appropriate sources of support.