Alexandre Moreira

Monitoring internal load parameters during simulated and official basketball matches.

Moreira, A, McGuigan, MR, Arruda, AFS, Freitas, CG, and Aoki, MS. Monitoring internal load parameters during simulated and official basketball matches. J Strength Cond Res 26(3): 861–866, 2012—The purpose of this study was to compare the internal load responses (session rating of perceived exertion [RPE] and salivary cortisol) between simulated and official matches (SM and OM). Ten professional basketball players participated in 2 OMs and 2 SMs during the competition season. Subjects provided saliva samples 30 minutes before the prematch warm-up (PRE) and 10 minutes after the end of the match. Session RPE (CR-10 scale) was assessed 30 minutes after each match. The results from the 2-way analysis of variance showed significant differences for post-OM salivary cortisol as compared with pre-OM values (p < 0.05). No changes were observed for cortisol during the SM. Before the OM, a significant difference in salivary cortisol was observed as compared with pre-SM values (p < 0.05). Moreover, the OM session RPE was significantly greater than that of SM. There was a significant correlation between session RPE and cortisol changes (r = 0.75). In summary, the results of this study showed a greater magnitude of cortisol and session RPE responses after OM as compared with that after SM confirming the hypothesis that a real competition generates a greater stress response than a simulated condition does. The anticipatory effect was also observed in the OM. In addition, the results indicate that session RPE seems to be a viable tool in monitoring internal loads, and the results are useful in providing a better understanding of internal loads imposed by basketball training and competitions. The precise monitoring of these responses might help the coaches to plan appropriate loads maximizing recovery and performance.

The impact of a 17-day training period for an international championship on mucosal immune parameters in top-level basketball players and staff members.

This investigation examined the impact of a 17-d training period (that included basketball-specific training, sprints, intermittent running exercises, and weight training, prior to an international championship competition) on salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) levels in 10 subjects (athletes and staff members) from a national basketball team, as a biomarker for mucosal immune defence. Unstimulated saliva samples were collected at rest at the beginning of the preparation for the Pan American Games and 1 d before the first game. The recovery interval from the last bout of exercise was 4 h. The SIgA level was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and expressed as absolute concentrations, secretion rate, and SIgA level relative to total protein. The decrease in SIgA levels following training was greater in athletes than in support staff; however, no significant differences between the two groups were detected. A decrease in SIgA level, regardless of the method used to express IgA results, was verified for athletes. Only one episode of upper respiratory tract illness symptoms was reported, and it was not associated with changes in SIgA levels. In summary, a situation of combined stress for an important championship was found to decrease the level of SIgA-mediated immune protection at the mucosal surface in team members, with greater changes observed in the athletes.

Monitoring training loads, stress, immune-endocrine responses and performance in tennis players.

The study aim was to investigate the effect of a periodised pre-season training plan on internal training load and subsequent stress tolerance, immune-endocrine responses and physical performance in tennis players. Well-trained young tennis players (n = 10) were monitored across the pre-season period, which was divided into 4 weeks of progressive overloading training and a 1-week tapering period. Weekly measures of internal training load, training monotony and stress tolerance (sources and symptoms of stress) were taken, along with salivary testosterone, cortisol and immunoglobulin A. One repetition maximum strength, running endurance, jump height and agility were assessed before and after training. The periodised training plan led to significant weekly changes in training loads (i.e. increasing in weeks 3 and 4, decreasing in week 5) and post-training improvements in strength, endurance and agility (P < 0.05). Cortisol concentration and the symptoms of stress also increased in weeks 3 and/or 4, before returning to baseline in week 5 (P < 0.05). Conversely, the testosterone to cortisol ratio decreased in weeks 3 and 4, before returning to baseline in week 5 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the training plan evoked adaptive changes in stress tolerance and hormonal responses, which may have mediated the improvements in physical performance.

Effect of match importance on salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin A responses in elite young volleyball players.

Abstract Moreira, A, Freitas, CG, Nakamura, FY, Drago, G, Drago, M, and Aoki, MS. Effect of match importance on salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin A responses in elite young volleyball players. J Strength Cond Res 27(1): 202–207, 2013—The purpose of this study was to compare the session ratings of perceived exertion (Session-RPE) responses and the salivary cortisol (sC) and immunoglobulin A (SIgA) levels between a regular season match (RM) and the final championship match (FM) in elite male volleyball players against the same opponent team. Higher importance was assumed for FM because this match would define the championship team. Session-RPE was obtained after 30 minutes of each match using the CR-10 scale. Saliva samples were collected before and after each match and during a rest day (baseline) at the same period of the matches. The SIgA and sC concentrations were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Greater Session-RPE was observed for FM as compared with RM (p < 0.01). The analysis of variance showed greater sC concentrations to FM as compared with RM for both prevalues and postvalues and compared with baseline (p < 0.05). Significant lower SIgA prevalues were noted for FM. In conclusion, the results showed that match intensity, cortisol concentration, and SIgA prelevel were affected by the match importance. These results indicate that monitoring session-RPE, sC, and SIgA responses, in conjunction, during training and competition, would provide valuable informations regarding how athletes cope with sports induced stress. This study provided knowledge about the effect of match importance on salivary markers related to stress that may help coaches to avoid excessive training loads reducing the likelihood to decrements on mucosal immunity and its consequent risk to upper respiratory tract infections, which in turn might affect the performance.

Effect of competition on salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin A, and upper respiratory tract infections in elite young soccer players.

Abstract Mortatti, AL, Moreira, A, Aoki, MS, Crewther, BT, Castagna, C, de Arruda, AFS, and Filho, JM. Effect of competition on salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin A, and upper respiratory tract infections in elite young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 26(5): 1396–1401, 2012—The present study examined the effect of a 20-day period of competition on salivary cortisol, mucosal immunity, and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in young male soccer players (n = 14). The players were monitored during the main under-19 Brazilian soccer championship, in which 7 matches were played in 20 days. Saliva samples were collected in the morning of each match and analyzed for cortisol and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Signs and symptoms of URTI were assessed across the study and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained for each match. Compared with match 1, a significant increase in player RPE was observed in matches 4–7 (p < 0.05). Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the reporting of URTI occurred between matches 2 and 3, and 6 and 7, and this was accompanied by significant decreases in salivary IgA levels. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were also seen between the individual reports of URTI and the decrease in IgA levels in match 2 (r = −0.60) and match 6 (r = −0.65). These results suggest that decrements in mucosal immunity, as measured by salivary IgA concentrations, may lead to a greater incidence of URTI in elite young soccer players. It may be speculated that the physiological and psychological stressors imposed by training and competition in a short timeframe are major contributing factors to these responses. Thus, the monitoring of salivary IgA could provide a useful and noninvasive approach for predicting URTI occurrences in young athletes during short-term competitions, especially if frequent sampling and rapid measurements are made.

Salivary immunoglobulin A responses in professional top-level futsal players.

Moreira, A, Arsati, F, de Oliveira Lima-Arsati, YB, de Freitas, CG, and de Araújo, VC. Salivary immunoglobulin a responses in professional top-level futsal players. J Strength Cond Res 25(7): 1932-1936, 2011—The purpose of this study was to investigate the responses of salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) in 10 professional top-level Brazilian futsal players after 2 highly competitive games separated by 7 days. Unstimulated saliva was collected over a 5-minute period at PRE- and POST-match. The SIgA was measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and expressed as the absolute concentration (SIgAabs) and secretion rate of IgA (SIgArate). Rate of perceived exertion and heart rate were used to monitor the exercise intensity. A 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measures showed nonsignificant differences between matches to SIgAabs, SIgArate, and saliva flow rate (p > 0.05). However, significant time differences were observed for all these parameters. In summary, we showed that a competitive training match induced a decrease in SIgA levels in top-level futsal players, which suggests an increment of the vulnerability to infections meditated by the training stimulus. This decrease suggests that the athletes were at an increased risk of developing an upper respiratory tract infection, and therefore, it could be necessary to take protective actions to minimize contact with cold viruses or even reduce the training load for athletes.

Salivary immunoglobulin a response to a match in top-level brazilian soccer players.

Moreira, A, Arsati, F, Cury, PR, Franciscon, C, Oliveira, PR, and Araújo, VC. Salivary immunoglobulin a response to a match in top-level brazilian soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 23(7): 1968-1973, 2009-It has been suggested that several parameters of mucosal immunity, including salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA), are affected by heavy exercise either in field sports or in the laboratory environment. Few observations have been made during a true sporting environment, particularly in professional soccer. We tested the hypothesis that salivary IgA levels will be decreased after a 70-minute regulation in a top-level professional soccer friendly match. Saliva samples from 24 male professional soccer players collected before and after the match were analyzed. Salivary immunoglobulin A concentration was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and expressed as the absolute concentration (s-IgAabs), s-IgA relative to total protein concentration (IgA-Pro), and the secretion rate of IgA (s-IgArate). Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was used to monitor the exercise intensity. The paired t-test showed no significant changes in s-IgAabs and s-IgArate (p > 0.05) from PRE to POST match. However, a significant (p < 0.05) increase in total protein concentration (1.46 ± 0.4 to 2.00 ± 07) and a decrease in IgA-Pro were observed. The best and most significant correlation was obtained with the RPE and changes in IgA-Pro (rs = −0.43) and could indicate that this expression may be an interesting marker of intensity in a soccer match. However, further investigation regarding exercise intensity, protein concentration, and immune suppression, particularly in team sports, is warranted. From a practical application, the variability of the responses among the players leads us to suggest that there is a need to individually analyze the results with team sports. Some athletes showed a decrease in s-IgA expressions, suggesting the need for taking protective actions to minimize contact with cold viruses or even reducing the training load.

Monitoring internal training load and mucosal immune responses in futsal athletes.

Abstract Moreira, A, de Moura, NR, Coutts, A, Costa, EC, Kempton, T, and Aoki, MS. Monitoring internal training load and mucosal immune responses in futsal athletes. J Strength Cond Res 27(5): 1253–1259, 2013—The purpose of this study was to examine the changes in salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA), cortisol, and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) and their relationships with training loads (TLs) during a 4-week period of intensive training during the competitive season in elite Brazilian futsal players. Twelve athletes (age: 19 ± 1 years; height: 180 ± 4 cm; and body mass: 73 ± 7 kg) participated in the study. The training program included tactical, technical, specific conditioning and strength training, and competition matches. Training load was quantified using the session rating of perceived exertion. Salivary immunoglobulin A, salivary cortisol and symptoms of URTIs were assessed weekly. A significant decrease in weekly TL was observed for week 4 (tapering) compared with that of other weeks (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed for cortisol and SIgA during the study (p > 0.05). There was a significant decrease in URTI symptom severity during week 4 as compared with that of weeks 1 and 2 (p < 0.05), with a significant correlation between weekly TL and URTI severity and weekly TL during week 4 (rs = 0.75; p < 0.05). The present findings suggest that futsal athletes are more susceptible to high URTI symptom severity in the periods of higher training. Therefore, the reduction in TLs before competitions is an appropriate strategy to minimize URTI symptoms ensuring the athletes ability to train and compete.

Effects of a Very Congested Match Schedule on Body-Load Impacts, Accelerations, and Running Measures in Youth Soccer Players

PURPOSE To analyze the effects of a very congested match schedule on the total distance (TD) covered, high-intensity-running (HIR) distance, and frequency of accelerations and body-load impacts (BLIs) performed in a team of under-15 soccer players (N=10; 15.1±0.2 y, 171.8±4.7 cm, 61±6.0 kg) during an international youth competition. METHODS Using global positioning systems, player performances were repeatedly monitored in 5 matches performed over 3 successive days. RESULTS Significant differences were observed between matches (P<.05) for the frequency of accelerations per minute, BLIs, and BLIs per minute. No differences were observed for the TD covered, TD run per minute, number of high-intensity runs, distance covered in HIR, per-minute peak running speed attained, or frequency of accelerations. The frequency of accelerations per minute decreased across the competition while BLIs were higher during the final than in all other matches. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that BLIs and acceleration might be used as an alternative means to represent the external load during congested match schedules rather than measures related to running speed or distance covered.

MONITORING TRAINING LOAD, RECOVERY-STRESS STATE, IMMUNE-ENDOCRINE RESPONSES, AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE IN ELITE FEMALE BASKETBALL PLAYERS DURING A PERIODIZED TRAINING PROGRAM

Abstract Nunes, JA, Moreira, A, Crewther, BT, Nosaka, K, Viveiros, L, and Aoki, MS. Monitoring training load, recovery-stress state, immune-endocrine responses, and physical performance in elite female basketball players during a periodized training program. J Strength Cond Res 28(10): 2973–2980, 2014—This study investigated the effect of a periodized training program on internal training load (ITL), recovery-stress state, immune-endocrine responses, and physical performance in 19 elite female basketball players. The participants were monitored across a 12-week period before an international championship, which included 2 overloading and tapering phases. The first overloading phase (fourth to sixth week) was followed by a 1-week tapering, and the second overloading phase (eighth to 10th week) was followed by a 2-week tapering. ITL (session rating of perceived exertion method) and recovery-stress state (RESTQ-76 Sport questionnaire) were assessed weekly and bi-weekly, respectively. Pretraining and posttraining assessments included measures of salivary IgA, testosterone and cortisol concentrations, strength, jumping power, running endurance, and agility. Internal training load increased across all weeks from 2 to 11 (p ⩽ 0.05). After the first tapering period (week 7), a further increase in ITL was observed during the second overloading phase (p ⩽ 0.05). After the second tapering period, a decrease in ITL was detected (p ⩽ 0.05). A disturbance in athlete stress-recovery state was noted during the second overloading period (p ⩽ 0.05), before returning to baseline level in end of the second tapering period. The training program led to significant improvements in the physical performance parameters evaluated. The salivary measures did not change despite the fluctuations in ITL. In conclusion, a periodized training program evoked changes in ITL in elite female basketball players, which appeared to influence their recovery-stress state. The training plan was effective in preparing participants for competition, as indicated by improvements in recovery-stress state and physical performance after tapering.