Alfred Colpaert

Snow conditions and usability value of pastureland for semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in northern boreal forest area

We studied variation in snow conditions and selection of pasture area according to altitude by semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) during 1999 - 2002 in a pine forest area utilised by forest industry in the Ivalo reindeer herding district, northern Finland. Snow conditions were measured over the course of three winters along equilateral triangles (side 3.5 km) for three times per winter. The altitudinal selection of pasture area by reindeer was studied using GPS tracking data (10 977 locations) from 29 female reindeer. We observed that interannual weather variation mostly affected the depth, density and hardness of snow in the study area. At the forest landscape level, snow depth and density increased with altitude. Thinnest and deepest snow cover occurred on western and northern slopes, respectively. In contrast, forest harvesting did not seem to affect snow conditions. From spring to autumn, reindeer mainly used higher altitudes in pastures. In early and mid-winter, when snow conditions were easy or moderate reindeer still preferred higher altitudes, but in late winter when snow conditions and food accession were at their most difficult, they preferred lower altitudes. We conclude that especially the use of high elevation forestland pastures may become more difficult for reindeer if the global climatic change causes higher winter precipitation to the northern boreal forest area. In general, the low-elevation forestland areas have primary winter grazing value for reindeer but these areas are also intensively used by forest industry. Abstract in Finnish / Tiivistelma: Lumiolosuhteet ja laidunten kayttoarvo poronhoidossa pohjoisella havumetsaaluella Lumiolosuhteiden vaihtelua ja porojen ( Rangifer tarandus tarandus ) laidunalueen valintaa maaston korkeuden perusteella tutkittiin vuosina 1999–2002 metsatalouden hyodyntamalla mantymetsaalueella Ivalon paliskunnassa, Pohjois-Suomessa. Lumiolosuhteet mitattiin kolme kertaa kunakin kolmena talvena kayttamalla mittaukseen tasasivuisia kolmioita (sivu 3,5 km). Porojen laidunalueen valintaa korkeusvyohykkeen mukaan tutkittiin kayttamalla porojen GPS seurannan aineistoja 29 vaatimesta (yhteensa 10 977 paikannusta). Vuosien valinen saavaihtelu vaikutti eniten lumen paksuuteen, tiheyteen ja kovuuteen tutkitulla alueella. Maisematasolla lumen paksuus ja tiheys lisaantyivat alueen korkeuden kasvaessa metsamaalla. Ohuin lumikerros mitattiin lansirinteilla ja paksuin kerros pohjoisrinteilla. Sen sijaan metsien kasittelylla ei nayttanyt olevan vaikutusta lumiolosuhteisiin. Kevaasta syksyyn porot kayttivat paaosin ylemmilla korkeusvyohykkeilla sijaitsevia laitumia. Alku ja keskitalvella, jolloin lumiolosuhteet olivat viela verrattain helpot, porot suosivat edelleen ylemmille korkeusvyohykkeille sijoittuvia laitumia, mutta lopputalvella lumiolosuhteiden ja ravinnonsaannin ollessa vaikeimmat, porot suosivat alempien korkeusvyohykkeiden laitumia. On todennakoista, etta erityisesti ylemmilla korkeusvyohykkeilla olevat metsamaan laitumet voivat tulla vaikeammaksi kayttaa poroille talvella, mikali ilmastonmuutos aiheuttaa talvisadannan lisaantymisen pohjoisella havumetsaalueella. Yleisesti alemmille korkeusvyohykkeille sijoittuvilla metsamaan laidunalueilla on ensisijainen talvilaidunarvo poronhoidolle, mutta myos metsatalous hyodyntaa naita alueita intensiivisesti. Abstract in Norwegian / Sammendrag: Snoforhold og bruksverdi som beiteland for tamrein ( Rangifer tarandus tarandus ) i nordborale skogsomrader I perioden 1999-2002 studerte vi tamreinens valg av beiteomrader ettersnoforhold og hoyde over havet i en furuskog utnyttet av skogsdriften i Ivalo reinbeitedistrikt nord i Finland. Snoforholdene ble malt 3 ganger per vinter i tre vintre etter likebeinte triangler med side 3,5 km. Reinens beiting i ulike hoyder ble malt med GPS-sporing av 29 simler pa tilsammen 10 977 observasjonspunkter. Vi observerte at vaervariasjonen mellom ar mest pavirket snodybde og snoens tetthet og hardhet. I skogslandskapet okte snodybden og tettheten med hoydebeliggenheten. Tynnest og djupest snodekke fantes henholdsvis i vestlige og nordlige skraninger. Derimot syntes ikke skogsdriften a pavirke snoforholdene. Fra var til host utnyttet reinen hovedsakelig de hoyestliggende beiteomradene. Tidlig og midt pa vinteren nar snoforholdene fortsatt var lette eller moderate, foretrakk reinen fortsatt hoyereliggende beiter, men pa seinvinteren nar snoforholdene og plantetilgjengeligheten var pa det vanskeligste, foretrakk reinen lavereliggende omrader. Ut fra observasjonene kan vi antyde at saerlig hoyereliggende beiteomrader blir mindre tilgjengelig for reinen om det blir okt vinternedbor i de nordlige skogsomradene som folge av globale klimaendringer. Vanligvis har de lavtliggende skogsomradene storst beiteverdi for reinen om vinteren, samtidig som disse omradene ogsa er de mest intesivt utnyttede hogstomrader for skogsindustrien.

Erratum to: Both reindeer management and several other land use factors explain the reduction in ground lichens (Cladonia spp.) in pastures grazed by semi-domesticated reindeer in Finland

Roles of intensive reindeer grazing and several additional land use factors in the reduction in ground lichens (Cladonia spp.) in pastures grazed by the semi-domesticated reindeer have been argued in Finland. Our analysis showed that several factors and processes explain the standing biomass of lichens (during 2005–2008) and the recent changes in this biomass (after 1995–1996) on lichen pastures located in the 20 northernmost herding districts in Finland. The higher the long-term reindeer densities on the lichen pastures the lower was the lichen biomass. The lichen biomass was also strongly affected by the grazing system; the lowest biomass values of lichens were measured in all grazing areas that were used in the snow-free seasons. The lichen biomass in pine forests less than 80 years old and in all mountain type lichen pastures was lower than that in mature and old pine forests. The lichen biomass also decreased as the proportion of arboreal lichen pastures within a district decreased and the proportion of human infrastructure increased. The aerial drift of heavy metals from the Kola Peninsula appeared to reduce lichens in a small north-eastern part of the study area. Increases in summer precipitation and winter temperatures increased the amount of lichens, but increases in summer temperatures and winter precipitation had the opposite effect. Reindeer densities, grazing system, pasture type and the previous abiotic factors were also associated with the reduction in lichen biomass between the inventories. We conclude that several local, regional and even global factors and processes affect the state of reindeer pastures in large and complex grazing ecosystems. Therefore, more comprehensive research and management strategies for the entire reindeer herding environment are needed.

GPS Collars in Studies of Cattle Movement: Cases of Northeast Namibia and North Finland

GPS-collar tracking devices have been used to track cattle (cows and semi-domesticated reindeer) in northeastern Namibia and northern Finland. Results have been used to analyze pasture use and pasture preference. GPS location data were studied in conjunction with other ancillary geographical data and indigenous knowledge. The first GPS-collar versions had engineering problems, but more recent versions seem to be working well. The risk of data loss can be reduced by using remote data downloaded by VHF-radio or GSM/satellite telephone connections. Although considered highly accurate, GPS data screening and accuracy assessment is highly recommendable. We found that only DOP or the number of satellites used for fix were not reliable for removing inaccurate data; a more complex set of criteria was necessary. Studies show clear patterns in pasture use by both Namibian cattle and Finnish reindeer. The movement of Namibian cattle was determined by the advance of the dry season and availability of water. Finnish reindeer have to migrate according to changing winter conditions and forestry operations. GPS-collars are a useful and reliable tool for studying cattle.

Exile and Repatriation: Experiences from the Zambezi Region, Namibia

ABSTRACT The Namibian Zambezi region, formerly Eastern Caprivi, has an exceptional borderland geohistory. It resulted from the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty between Great Britain and Germany in 1890, to give Germany a corridor to the Zambezi River linking German East and South-West Africa. The Caprivi Strip as it was called proved useless, but has remained part of the geopolitical setting of Southern Africa to date. During the struggle for independence from the 1960s to 1989 the area soon became a strategic asset of the South African Defense Force and was heavily militarized. Due to increasing repression, many young adults, men and women, left the area to join SWAPO in Zambia. They crossed the border to Zambia and Botswana and were transported between camps to receive basic military training. Many were sent abroad to get additional training both military and civilian. Most also served in Angola, on the so-called northern front. The interviews of ten former exiles are the empirical data for this paper, most of them served in the armed struggle, but some served as nurses, teachers and as SWAPO envoys. The key concepts here are the experiences of the border people reflecting the decision to leave, the camp life, comradeship, and the common cause. After repatriation most suffered from a sense of being an outsider, and it took time to reconcile the leavers and remainers. The education and training in the Soviet Union, Finland, North Korea and elsewhere, were certainly beneficial for both the rebuilding of the new Namibia, but also for their personal life.