Alfred Maelicke

Choline is a Selective Agonist of α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in the Rat Brain Neurons

In the present study, we demonstrate that choline, a precursor of acetylcholine (ACh) and a product of acetylcholine hydrolysis by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acts as an efficient and relatively selective agonist of α7–containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) in neurons cultured from the rat hippocampus, olfactory bulb and thalamus as well as in PC12 cells. Choline was able to activate postsynaptic and presynaptic α7 nAChRs, with the latter action resulting in the release of other neurotransmitters. Although choline was approximately one order of magnitude less potent than ACh (EC50 of 1.6 mM for choline and 0.13 mM for ACh), it acted as a full agonist at α7 nAChRs. In contrast, choline did not activate α4β2 agonist‐bearing nAChRs on hippocampal neurons, and acted as a partial agonist at α3β4‐containing nAChRs on PC12 cells. The ethyl alcohol moiety of choline is required for the selective action on α7 nAChR. Exposure of cultured hippocampal neurons for 10 min to choline (10–100 μM) resulted in desensitization of the native α7 nAChRs. Moreover, chronic exposure (10 days) of the cultured hippocampal neurons to a desensitizing concentration of choline (∼30 μM) decreased their responsiveness to ACh. The selective action of choline on native α7 nAChRs suggests that this naturally occurring compound may act in vivo as an endogenous ligand for these receptors. Putative physiological actions of choline include retrograde messenger activity during the development of the mammalian central nervous system and during periods of elevated synaptic activity that leads to long‐term potentiation.

Allosteric sensitization of nicotinic receptors by galantamine, a new treatment strategy for Alzheimer’s disease

Cholinesterase inhibitors are the only approved drug treatment for patients with mild to moderately severe Alzheimers disease. Interestingly, the clinical potency of these drugs does not correlate well with their activity as cholinesterase inhibitors, nor is their action as short lived as would be expected from purely symptomatic treatment. A few cholinesterase inhibitors, including galantamine, produce beneficial effects even after drug treatment has been terminated. These effects assume modes of action other than mere esterase inhibition and are capable of inducing systemic changes. We have recently discovered a mechanism that could account, at least in part, for the above-mentioned unexpected properties of some cholinesterase inhibitors. We have found that a subgroup of cholinesterase inhibitors, including galantamine but excluding tacrine, directly interacts with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These compounds, named allosterically potentiating ligands, sensitize nicotinic receptors by increasing the probability of channel opening induced by acetylcholine and nicotinic agonists and by slowing down receptor desensitization. The allosterically potentiating ligand action, which is not necessarily associated with cholinesterase inhibition, has been demonstrated by whole-cell patch-clamp recordings to occur in natural murine and human neurons and in murine and human cell lines expressing various subtypes of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Allosteric modulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as a treatment strategy for Alzheimer's disease.

The basic symptoms of Alzheimers dementia, i.e., a loss in cognitive function, are due to impaired nicotinic cholinergic neurotransmission. To compensate for this impairment by drug treatment, blockers of the acetylcholine-degrading enzyme acetylcholinesterase are applied, even though this approach obviously is prone to many side-effects, including those of muscarinic nature. We have recently described a novel class of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ligands which, similar to the action of benzodiazepines on GABA(A) receptors, allosterically potentiate submaximal nicotinic responses. The sensitizing effect is a consequence of facilitated channel opening in the presence of allosterically potentiating ligand (APL). Representative members of this class of ligands are the plant alkaloids physostigmine, galanthamine, and codeine. Because APLs could enhance nicotinic neurotransmission under conditions of reduced secretion and/or increased degradation of acetylcholine or reduced acetylcholine-sensitivity of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, they could have a preventive and corrective action on impaired but still functioning nicotinic neurotransmission.

Evaluating the suitability of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antibodies for standard immunodetection procedures.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors play important roles in numerous cognitive processes as well as in several debilitating central nervous system (CNS) disorders. In order to fully elucidate the diverse roles of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in CNS function and dysfunction, a detailed knowledge of their cellular and subcellular localizations is essential. To date, methods to precisely localize nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the CNS have predominantly relied on the use of anti‐receptor subunit antibodies. Although data obtained by immunohistology and immunoblotting are generally in accordance with ligand binding studies, some discrepancies remain, in particular with electrophysiological findings. In this context, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit‐deficient mice should be ideal tools for testing the specificity of subunit‐directed antibodies. Here, we used standard protocols for immunohistochemistry and western blotting to examine the antibodies raised against the α3‐, α4‐, α7‐, β2‐, and β4‐nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits on brain tissues of the respective knock‐out mice. Unexpectedly, for each of the antibodies tested, immunoreactivity was the same in wild‐type and knock‐out mice. These data imply that, under commonly used conditions, these antibodies are not suited for immunolocalization. Thus, particular caution should be exerted with regards to the experimental approach used to visualize nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain.

Expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits in the cerebral cortex in Alzheimer’s disease: histotopographical correlation with amyloid plaques and hyperphosphorylated-tau protein

Impairment of cholinergic transmission and decreased numbers of nicotinic binding sites are well‐known features accompanying the cognitive dysfunction seen in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In order to elucidate the underlying cause of this cholinoceptive dysfunction, the expression of two pharmacologically different nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits (α4, α7) was studied in the cerebral cortex of Alzheimer patients as compared to controls. Patch‐clamp recordings of 14 dissociated neurons of control cortices showed responses suggesting the existence of α4‐ and α7‐containing functional nAChRs in the human cortex. In cortices of Alzheimer patients and controls, the pattern of distribution and the number of α4 and α7 mRNA‐expressing neurons were similar, whereas at the protein level a decrease in the density of α4‐ and α7‐expressing neurons of ≈ 30% was observed in Alzheimer patients. The histotopographical correlation of nAChR expression with accompanying pathological changes, e.g. accumulation of hyperphosphorylated‐tau (HP‐tau) protein and β‐amyloid showed that neurons in the vicinity of β‐amyloid plaques bore both nAChR transcripts. Neurons heavily labelled for HP‐tau, however, expressed little or no α4 and α7 mRNA. These results point to an impaired synthesis of nAChRs on the protein level as a possible cause of the cholinoceptive deficit in AD. Further investigations need to elucidate whether interactions of HP‐tau with nAChR mRNA, or alterations in the quality of α4 and α7 transcripts give rise to decreased protein expression at the level of individual neurons.

Nicotinic cholinoceptive neurons of the frontal cortex are reduced in Alzheimer's disease

The cellular distribution of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors was studied in the frontal cortex (area 10) of 1) Alzheimer patients and compared to 2) age-matched and 3) middle-aged controls using the monoclonal antibody WF 6 and an immunoperoxidase protocol. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between the number of labeled neurons among all three groups tested (middle-aged controls greater than aged controls greater than Alzheimer cases). No differences were seen for cresyl violet-stained samples. These findings underline that the nicotinic receptor decrease found with radioligand binding may reflect a postsynaptic in addition to a presynaptic component.

Nicotinic Receptor Function in the Mammalian Central Nervous Systema

The diversity of neuronal nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) in addition to their possible involvement in such pathological conditions as Alzheimers disease have directed our research towards the characterization of these receptors in various mammalian brain areas. Our studies have relied on electrophysiological, biochemical, and immunofluorescent techniques applied to cultured and acutely dissociated hippocampal neurons, and have been aimed at identifying the various subtypes of nAChRs expressed in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), at defining the mechanisms by which CNS nAChR activity is modulated, and at determining the ion permeability of CNS nAChR channels. Our findings can be summarized as follows: (1) hippocampal neurons express at least three subtypes of CNS nAChRs--an alpha 7-subunit-bearing nAChR that subserves fast-inactivating, alpha-BGT-sensitive currents, which are referred to as type IA, and alpha 4 beta 2 nAChR that subserves slowly inactivating, dihydro-beta-erythroidine-sensitive currents, which are referred to as type II, and an alpha 3 beta 4 nAChR that subserves slowly inactivating, mecamylamine-sensitive currents, which are referred to as type III; (2) nicotinic agonists can activate a single type of nicotinic current in olfactory bulb neurons, that is, type IA currents; (3) alpha 7-subunit-bearing nAChR channels in the hippocampus have a brief lifetime, a high conductance, and a high Ca2+ permeability; (4) the peak amplitude of type IA currents tends to rundown with time, and this rundown can be prevented by the presence of ATP-regenerating compounds (particularly phosphocreatine) in the internal solution; (5) rectification of type IA currents is dependent on the presence of Mg2+ in the internal solution; and (6) there is an ACh-insensitive site on neuronal and nonneuronal nAChRs through which the receptor channel can be activated. These findings lay the groundwork for a better understanding of the physiological role of these receptors in synaptic transmission in the CNS.

Allosterically potentiating ligands of nicotinic receptors as a treatment strategy for Alzheimer's disease.

One of the most prominent cholinergic deficit in Alzheimers disease (AD) is the reduced number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) in the hippocampus and cortex of AD patients, as compared to age-matched controls. This deficit results in reduced nicotinic cholinergic excitation which may not only impair postsynaptic depolarization but also presynaptic neurotransmitter release and Ca2+-dependent intracellular signaling, including transcriptional activity. Presently, the most common approach to correct the nicotinic cholinergic deficit in AD is the application of cholinesterase inhibitors. Due to the resulting increase in synaptic acetylcholine levels, both in concentration and time, additional nAChR molecules, e.g. those more distant from the ACh release sites, could be activated. As an obvious disadvantage, this approach affects cholinergic neurotransmission as a whole, including muscarinic neurotransmission. As a novel and alternative approach, a treatment strategy which exclusively targets nicotinic receptors is suggested. The strategy is based on a group of modulating ligands of nicotinic receptors, named allosterically potentiating ligands (APL), which increase the probability of channel opening induced by ACh and nicotinic agonists, and in addition decrease receptor desensitization. The action of APL on nicotinic receptors is reminiscent of that of benzodiazepines on GABA(A) receptors and of that of glycine on the NMDA-subtype of glutamate receptor. Representative nicotinic APL are the plant alkaloids physostigmine, galanthamine and codeine, and the neurotransmitter serotonin (5HT). The potentiating effect of APL on nicotinic neurotransmission has been shown by whole-cell patch-clamp studies in natural murine and human neurons, and in murine and human cell lines expressing various subtypes of neuronal nAChR.

α7 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and modulation of gabaergic synaptic transmission in the hippocampus

The present report provides new findings regarding modulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transmission by alpha7 nicotinic receptor activity in CA1 interneurons of rat hippocampal slices. Recordings were obtained from tight-seal cell-attached patches of the CA1 interneurons, and agonists were delivered to the neurons via a modified U-tube. Application for 6 s of the alpha7 nicotinic receptor-selective agonist choline (> or =1 mM) to all CA1 interneurons tested triggered action potentials that were detected as fast current transients. The activity triggered by choline terminated well before the end of the agonist pulse, was blocked by the alpha7 nicotinic receptor antagonist methyllycaconitine (50 nM) and was concentration dependent; the higher the concentration of choline the higher the frequency of events and the shorter the delay for detection of the first event. In 40% of the neurons tested, choline-triggered action potentials decreased in amplitude progressively until no more events could be detected despite the presence of the agonist. Primarily, this finding could be explained by Na(+)-channel inactivation associated with membrane depolarization induced by alpha7 nicotinic receptor activation. In 60% of the neurons, the amplitude of choline-induced action potentials was sustained at the intial level, but again the activity did not last as long as the agonist pulse, in this case apparently because of agonist-induced receptor desensitization. These results altogether demonstrate that agonists interacting with alpha7 nicotinic receptors, including the natural transmitter acetylcholine and its metabolite choline, influence GABAergic transmission, not only by activating these receptors, but also by controlling the rate of Na(+)-channel inactivation and/or by inducing receptor desensitization.

Neuronal nicotinic receptors in synaptic functions in humans and rats: Physiological and clinical relevance

The present report describes the participation of nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) in controlling the excitability of local neuronal circuitries in the rat hippocampus and in the human cerebral cortex. The patch-clamp technique was used to record responses triggered by the non-selective agonist ACh and the alpha7-nAChR-selective agonist choline in interneurons of human cerebral cortical and rat hippocampal slices. Evidence is provided that functional alpha7- and alpha4beta2-like nAChRs are present on somatodendritic and/or preterminal/terminal regions of interneurons in the CA1 field of the rat hippocampus and in the human cerebral cortex and that activation of the different nAChR subtypes present in the preterminal/terminal areas of the interneurons triggers the tetrodotoxin-sensitive release of GABA. Modulation by nAChRs of GABAergic transmission, which can result either in inhibition or disinhibition of pyramidal neurons, depends both on the receptor subtype present in the interneurons and on the agonist acting upon these receptors. Not only do alpha7 nAChRs desensitize faster than alpha4beta2 nAChRs, but also alpha7 nAChR desensitization induced by ACh lasts longer than that induced by choline. These mechanisms, which appear to be retained across species, might explain the involvement of nAChRs in cognitive functions and in such neurological disorders as Alzheimers disease and schizophrenia.