Alisa Reasonover

Community-Onset Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Associated with Antibiotic Use and the Cytotoxin Panton-Valentine Leukocidin during a Furunculosis Outbreak in Rural Alaska

BACKGROUND Community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CO-MRSA) reports are increasing, and infections often involve soft tissue. During a CO-MRSA skin infection outbreak in Alaska, we assessed risk factors for disease and whether a virulence factor, Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL), could account for the high rates of MRSA skin infection in this region. METHODS We conducted S. aureus surveillance in the outbreak region and a case-control study in 1 community, comparing 34 case patients with MRSA skin infection with 94 control subjects. An assessment of traditional saunas was performed. S. aureus isolates from regional surveillance were screened for PVL genes by use of polymerase chain reaction, and isolate relatedness was determined by use of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). RESULTS Case patients received more antibiotic courses during the 12 months before the outbreak than did control subjects (median, 4 vs. 2 courses; P=.01) and were more likely to use MRSA-colonized saunas than were control subjects (44% vs. 13%; age-adjusted odds ratio, 4.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.7-12). The PVL genes were present in 110 (97%) of 113 MRSA isolates, compared with 0 of 81 methicillin-susceptible S. aureus isolates (P<.001). The majority of MRSA isolates were closely related by PFGE. CONCLUSION Selective antibiotic pressure for drug-resistant strains carrying PVL may have led to the emergence and spread of CO-MRSA in rural Alaska.

Indirect Effect of Conjugate Vaccine on Adult Carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae: An Explanation of Trends in Invasive Pneumococcal Disease

BACKGROUND Use of heptavalent protein-polysaccharide pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) has been associated with decreases in PCV7-type invasive pneumococcal disease and nasopharyngeal (NP) carriage in children. Vaccine use has also indirectly decreased the rate of invasive disease in adults, presumably through decreased transmission of pneumococci from vaccinated children to adults. METHODS We conducted NP carriage surveys in 8 villages in Alaska in 1998-2004. Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates were characterized by serotype and antimicrobial susceptibility. We analyzed trends in serotype distribution, antibiotic resistance, and factors associated with adult carriage of PCV7-serotype pneumococci before and after the introduction of PCV7 in 2001. RESULTS We collected 15,598 NP swabs; overall, 52% of adults living in the villages surveyed participated in the colonization study. The proportion of adult carriers with PCV7-type pneumococcal carriage decreased from 28% of carriers in 1998-2000 to 4.5% of carriers in 2004 (P<.0001). Among adults, the proportion of colonizing isolates that were resistant to penicillin decreased from 13% in 1998-2000 to 6% in 2004 (P=.05), whereas the percentage of isolates with intermediate susceptibility to penicillin increased from 12% in 1998-2000 to 19% in 2004 (P<.01). Adults were more likely to carry PCV7-type pneumococci if they lived with a child <5 years old or if they lived with a child who had not been age-appropriately vaccinated with PCV7. CONCLUSIONS Pediatric vaccination with PCV7 has resulted in decreased PCV7-type pneumococcal carriage among adults and helps to explain recent decreases in the rate of PCV7-type invasive pneumococcal disease among adults.

The relationship among previous antimicrobial use, antimicrobial resistance, and treatment outcomes for Helicobacter pylori infections

Context Adverse effects of previous antibiotic use in patients with Helicobacter pylori infections are unclear. Contribution This retrospective study examined relationships between resistant H. pylori infections and past antibiotic use in 125 Alaskan Native adults. Clarithromycin-resistant H. pylori isolates were common (prevalence, 30%) and were associated in a dose-response manner with previous use of macrolide antibiotics. Of patients with these resistant isolates, 77% had treatment failure with clarithromycin-based regimens. Implications Previous use of macrolide antibiotics is associated with increased risk for infection with clarithromycin-resistant H. pylori and increased risk for treatment failure with that antibiotic. The Editors Helicobacter pylori is a common pathogen of the gastric mucosa, infecting up to 40% of persons in developed countries and up to 90% of individuals living in developing nations (1, 2). Infection with H. pylori has been shown to be a major cause of gastric and duodenal ulcers and is also associated with chronic gastritis, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and adenocarcinoma of the stomach (3-6). Eradication of H. pylori has been reported in up to 95% of patients treated with a combination of antimicrobial agents (7-9). In the United States and elsewhere, antimicrobial resistance to metronidazole and clarithromycin is increasing; resistance to amoxicillin and tetracycline remains uncommon (10-12). Compared with persons with susceptible isolates, persons infected with clarithromycin- or metronidazole-resistant H. pylori have lower cure rates when treated with regimens containing these antimicrobial agents (12-15). In studies that have addressed risk factors associated with resistant H. pylori infection, none to our knowledge have evaluated prediagnosis antimicrobial use as a risk factor for resistance or treatment failure (16, 17). Alaska Nativespersons of Eskimo, Indian, and Aleut descenthave high rates of H. pylori infection, with an overall seroprevalence of 75% for specific antibodies (18). We are conducting a study in urban Alaska Native, rural Alaska Native, and urban non-Native adults to determine and compare reinfection rates after successful eradication of H. pylori. The study in urban Alaska Native adults is completed, and in this group, we sought to determine whether past antimicrobial use was associated with antimicrobial resistance among H. pylori isolates obtained through diagnostic endoscopy. We then determined whether H. pylori antimicrobial resistance affected the outcome of H. pylori treatment. Methods From September 1998 through June 2002, the Arctic Investigations Program of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Alaska Native Medical Center (ANMC) conducted a study to determine reinfection rates after successful eradication of H. pylori infection among Alaska Natives living in Anchorage. The ANMC is a 150-bed referral hospital that provides outpatient primary care services for Alaska Natives living in the Anchorage area. The institutional review boards of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Alaska Area Tribal Health Consortium, and the Indian Health Service approved the study, as did the Alaska Native Health Board. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Patients and Data Collection From September 1998 through June 2002, we attempted to recruit all Alaska Natives 18 years of age or older from the Anchorage area who had no history of an immunodeficiency condition or were not taking immunosuppressive medications (such as corticosteroids or cancer chemotherapeutic agents) and were scheduled for esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Alaska Natives who use ANMC for surgical procedures are very likely to receive most of their care from this facility, since no copayment is assessed to persons eligible for care at ANMC. A study nurse recruited 293 persons during the study period, 149 of whom had a positive culture for H. pylori. Since 27 September 1990, patient care information from all outpatient health care visits and outpatient pharmacy encounters at ANMC has been entered into a computerized records system. For this analysis, we recorded all antimicrobial prescriptions for 10 years before diagnosis of H. pylori infection by consulting outpatient records of study participants for whom at least 8 years of pharmacy records were available. We also recorded antimicrobial use during all hospitalizations and emergency department visits at ANMC for each participant in the same 10-year period. An antimicrobial course was defined as a prescription for an antimicrobial drug regardless of dose, duration, and frequency. Biopsy and Culture All participants had up to 3 gastric biopsy specimens taken for culture, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and histologic examination for H. pylori. Gastric biopsy specimens stored in cysteine freeze medium at 80 C were ground in a sterile tissue grinder with heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum and inoculated to 3 types of solid media: blood agar (tryptic soy agar with 5% sheep blood); chocolate agar; and brucella agar containing 10% horse blood, trimethoprim, vancomycin, and polymyxin B. All cultures were incubated at 37 C under microaerophilic conditions and high humidity (12% CO2, 98% humidity) for up to 10 days. Positive cultures were usually identified after 3 to 5 days of incubation. Isolates were identified as H. pylori on the basis of positive catalase, oxidase, and urease reactions; typical uniform, small, translucent colonies; curved gram-negative bacilli on Gram-stained smears; susceptibility to cephalothin (30 g); and resistance to nalidixic acid (30 g). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for clarithromycin, amoxicillin, metronidazole, and tetracycline were determined by using agar dilution. Helicobacter pylori isolates were defined as susceptible if the MIC was within the following limits: less than or equal to 0.25 g/mL for clarithromycin, less than or equal to 0.25 g/mL for amoxicillin, less than 8 g/mL for metronidazole, and less than 2 g/mL for tetracycline. Helicobacter pylori isolates with MICs above these limits were classified as resistant (19). In participants who had many cultures of their H. pylori isolates, the highest MIC determined from all of the cultures was used for analysis. Culture results were not available to providers before initiation of treatment. Treatment and Follow-up Each participants attending physician decided whether to initiate treatment and selected the treatment regimen. Patients who were treated received a 2-week course of a combination of 2 or 3 antibiotics plus lansoprazole. A study nurse called each patient approximately every 3 days to document adherence. Successful eradication of H. pylori was defined as negative results on a urea breath test (BreathTek UBT, Meretek Diagnostics, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee) 8 weeks after initiation of treatment. Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was performed by using StatXact 5 (Cytel Software Corp., Cambridge, Massachusetts) and SAS software (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina). Confidence intervals for binomial proportions were computed by using the Casella procedure (20). Bivariate associations were examined by using the chi-square test or the Fisher exact test for dichotomous variables. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used for comparisons of continuous variables. Logistic regression was used to test univariable dose-response relationships and multivariable associations with antimicrobial resistance. Variables were considered for the multivariable models if their univariable P value was less than 0.25, with the exception of sex, which was included in all models. The numbers of courses of macrolides, clarithromycin, erythromycin, azithromycin, and metronidazole were entered into the multivariable models as indicator variables ( 1 course or 0 courses), while the number of all other courses of antibiotics was entered as an interval variable. Variables were considered confounders and remained in the model if their exclusion changed the value of the coefficients of interest by more than 15%. All P values are two-sided, and confidence intervals are exact when appropriate. Results One hundred forty-nine persons with culture-confirmed H. pylori infection were enrolled in the study. Of these, 125 who had documented health encounters for at least 8 years before enrollment (84%) were included for analysis. The median age of participants was 46.5 years (range, 22.2 to 88.7 years). Eighty-two (66%) were women, and all were Alaska Natives. Pharmacy records were available for a median of 8.6 years (range, 8.0 to 9.6 years). A median of 11 (range, 0 to 68) antimicrobial courses was prescribed during the 8 to 10 years before enrollment (mean, 1.52 courses per year). For -lactam antimicrobial agents and macrolide antimicrobial agents, the median number of courses prescribed was 5 (range, 0 to 31) and 1 (range, 0 to 11), respectively. The median number of courses for all other classes of antimicrobial agents prescribed (including metronidazole) was 3 (range, 0 to 30). Thirteen patients (10%) had received previous treatment for H. pylori infection in the 10 years before enrollment. Clinical symptoms included heartburn (75%), nausea (72%), vomiting (40%), and hematemesis (11%). Endoscopic findings included hemorrhagic or superficial ulcerations of the gastric mucosa in 56 patients (45%), duodenal ulcers in 4 (3%), and gastric ulcers in 8 (6%). Two specimens of the gastric mucosa were obtained for culture from 105 participants (84%) at the time of diagnosis. Seventeen patients (14%) had a single specimen submitted for culture, and 3 (2%) had 3 or more specimens. Among the 125 participants, 83 (66%) were found to have H. pylori isolates resistant to metronidazole, 37 (30%) were found to have H. pylori isolates resistant to clarithromycin, 7 (6%) were found to have H. pylori isolates resistant t

An outbreak of community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections in southwestern Alaska.

OBJECTIVE We investigated a large outbreak of community-onset methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in southwestern Alaska to determine the extent of these infections and whether MRSA isolates were likely community acquired. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. SETTING Rural southwestern Alaska. PATIENTS All patients with a history of culture-confirmed S. aureus infection from March 1, 1999, through August 10, 2000. RESULTS More than 80% of culture-confirmed S. aureus infections were methicillin resistant, and 84% of MRSA infections involved skin or soft tissue; invasive disease was rare. Most (77%) of the patients with MRSA skin infections had community-acquired MRSA (no hospitalization, surgery, dialysis, indwelling line or catheter, or admission to a long-term-care facility in the 12 months before infection). Patients with MRSA skin infections were more likely to have received a prescription for an antimicrobial agent in the 180 days before infection than were patients with methicillin-susceptible S. aureus skin infections. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that the epidemiology of MRSA in rural southwestern Alaska has changed and suggest that the emergence of community-onset MRSA in this region was not related to spread of a hospital organism. Treatment guidelines were developed recommending that beta-lactam antimicrobial agents not be used as a first-line therapy for suspected S. aureus infections.

Impact of a Conjugate Vaccine on Community-Wide Carriage of Nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in Alaska

BACKGROUND Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of invasive bacterial disease and pneumonia among children. Antimicrobial resistance among pneumococci has increased in recent years and complicates treatment. The introduction of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) could reduce acquisition of antimicrobial-resistant pneumococci. METHODS We obtained 1350 nasopharyngeal swabs for culture from 1275 children aged 3-59 months presenting at 3 clinics in Anchorage, Alaska, during the winters of 2000, 2001, and 2002, as PCV7 was being introduced into the routine immunization schedule. We recorded the frequency of use of antibiotics as well as the dates of doses of PCV7 for enrolled children. We used multivariate logistic regression modeling to identify independent risk factors for overall carriage of pneumococci and carriage of PCV7-type pneumococci, cotrimoxazole-nonsusceptible (COT-NS) pneumococci, or penicillin-nonsusceptible (PCN-NS) pneumococci. RESULTS The proportion of children who were up-to-date for age, with respect to PCV7 vaccination, increased from 0% in 2000 to 55% in 2002. Carriage of PCV7-type pneumococci decreased by 43% (P<.0001). Risk of carriage of PCV7-type pneumococci was lower in 2002 than in 2000, independent of vaccination status, suggesting an indirect effect of vaccination. Carriage of COT-NS, but not PCN-NS, pneumococci also decreased (38%; P=.02), not only among vaccinated children but also among unvaccinated children without recent use of antibiotics. CONCLUSIONS Introduction of PCV7 into the routine infant immunization schedule in a community with a high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant pneumococci appears to reduce transmission of PCV7 vaccine serotypes and COT-NS pneumococci but has no impact on overall carriage of pneumococci or carriage of PCN-NS pneumococci.

The Relationship between Previous Fluoroquinolone Use and Levofloxacin Resistance in Helicobacter pylori Infection

The relationship between prior fluoroquinolone use and levofloxacin resistance in Helicobacter pylori infection is unknown. Among 125 enrolled patients, 8.8% had H. pylori isolates that were resistant to levofloxacin. Levofloxacin resistance was associated with any prior fluoroquinolone use over the previous 10 years and with the total number of fluoroquinolone courses prescribed (P<.001).

Impact of conjugate vaccine on transmission of antimicrobial-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae among Alaskan children.

Background: The impact of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) on transmission of antimicrobial-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae is an important concern for countries considering PCV7 introduction. Methods: Every winter from 2000 to 2004, as PCV7 was routinely introduced, we obtained nasopharyngeal swabs for pneumococcal culture, serotyping, and susceptibility testing from 150 children aged 3–59 months at each of 3 Anchorage, Alaska clinics. We assessed risk factors for pneumococcal carriage, including vaccination status and antimicrobial use. Results: Between 2000 and 2004, 2250 nasopharyngeal swabs from 2061 infants and children were collected. The proportion of children receiving ≥1 PCV7 vaccination increased from 0 to 89%, whereas overall pneumococcal carriage remained stable (38% versus 41%, respectively). Among S. pneumoniae carriers, we observed declines in carriage of PCV7 serotypes (from 54% to 10%, P < 0.01) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole nonsusceptible strains (44% to 16%, P < 0.01), but not in PCN-nonsusceptible strains (36% versus 37%). Among PCN-nonsusceptible types, the proportion of serotype 19A strains increased from 10% to 32% (P = 0.0002). Recent β-lactam use was stable throughout the period (29% overall), whereas trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole use declined from 6% to 2% (P = 0.02). Conclusions: PCV7 vaccination in the first 5 years did not affect overall pneumococcal carriage, but was associated with a shift in serotype distribution from PCV7 types to non-PCV7 types. With persistent pressure of some antimicrobials, reductions in carriage of antimicrobial nonsusceptible PCV7 types may be offset by increases in carriage of nonsusceptible non-PCV7 types.

Longitudinal Nasopharyngeal Carriage and Antibiotic Resistance of Respiratory Bacteria in Indigenous Australian and Alaska Native Children with Bronchiectasis

Background Indigenous children in Australia and Alaska have very high rates of chronic suppurative lung disease (CSLD)/bronchiectasis. Antibiotics, including frequent or long-term azithromycin in Australia and short-term beta-lactam therapy in both countries, are often prescribed to treat these patients. In the Bronchiectasis Observational Study we examined over several years the nasopharyngeal carriage and antibiotic resistance of respiratory bacteria in these two PCV7-vaccinated populations. Methods Indigenous children aged 0.5–8.9 years with CSLD/bronchiectasis from remote Australia (n = 79) and Alaska (n = 41) were enrolled in a prospective cohort study during 2004–8. At scheduled study visits until 2010 antibiotic use in the preceding 2-weeks was recorded and nasopharyngeal swabs collected for culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Analysis of respiratory bacterial carriage and antibiotic resistance was by baseline and final swabs, and total swabs by year. Results Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage changed little over time. In contrast, carriage of Haemophilus influenzae declined and Staphylococcus aureus increased (from 0% in 2005–6 to 23% in 2010 in Alaskan children); these changes were associated with increasing age. Moraxella catarrhalis carriage declined significantly in Australian, but not Alaskan, children (from 64% in 2004–6 to 11% in 2010). While beta-lactam antibiotic use was similar in the two cohorts, Australian children received more azithromycin. Macrolide resistance was significantly higher in Australian compared to Alaskan children, while H. influenzae beta-lactam resistance was higher in Alaskan children. Azithromycin use coincided significantly with reduced carriage of S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis, but increased carriage of S. aureus and macrolide-resistant strains of S. pneumoniae and S. aureus (proportion of carriers and all swabs), in a ‘cumulative dose-response’ relationship. Conclusions Over time, similar (possibly age-related) changes in nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage were observed in Australian and Alaskan children with CSLD/bronchiectasis. However, there were also significant frequency-dependent differences in carriage and antibiotic resistance that coincided with azithromycin use.

Alaska Sentinel Surveillance for Antimicrobial Resistance in Helicobacter pylori Isolates from Alaska Native Persons, 1999–2003

Background:  Previous studies in Alaska have demonstrated elevated proportions of antimicrobial resistance among Helicobacter pylori isolates.

Evaluation of seaFAST, a rapid fluorescent in situ hybridization test, for detection of Helicobacter pylori and resistance to clarithromycin in paraffin-embedded biopsy sections.

ABSTRACT A commercially available rapid fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) test, (seaFAST H. pylori Combi-Kit; SeaPro Theranostics International, Lelystad, The Netherlands) was used to simultaneously detect the presence of Helicobacter pylori and determine clarithromycin susceptibility in paraffin-embedded biopsy sections. The FISH method was found to be 97% sensitive, 94% specific for the detection of H. pylori and comparable to agar dilution for the detection of resistance to clarithromycin.