Alistair J. Henry

Two doses of sclerostin antibody in cynomolgus monkeys increases bone formation, bone mineral density, and bone strength

The development of bone‐rebuilding anabolic agents for treating bone‐related conditions has been a long‐standing goal. Genetic studies in humans and mice have shown that the secreted protein sclerostin is a key negative regulator of bone formation. More recently, administration of sclerostin‐neutralizing monoclonal antibodies in rodent studies has shown that pharmacologic inhibition of sclerostin results in increased bone formation, bone mass, and bone strength. To explore the effects of sclerostin inhibition in primates, we administered a humanized sclerostin‐neutralizing monoclonal antibody (Scl‐AbIV) to gonad‐intact female cynomolgus monkeys. Two once‐monthly subcutaneous injections of Scl‐AbIV were administered at three dose levels (3, 10, and 30 mg/kg), with study termination at 2 months. Scl‐AbIV treatment had clear anabolic effects, with marked dose‐dependent increases in bone formation on trabecular, periosteal, endocortical, and intracortical surfaces. Bone densitometry showed that the increases in bone formation with Scl‐AbIV treatment resulted in significant increases in bone mineral content (BMC) and/or bone mineral density (BMD) at several skeletal sites (ie, femoral neck, radial metaphysis, and tibial metaphysis). These increases, expressed as percent changes from baseline were 11 to 29 percentage points higher than those found in the vehicle‐treated group. Additionally, significant increases in trabecular thickness and bone strength were found at the lumbar vertebrae in the highest‐dose group. Taken together, the marked bone‐building effects achieved in this short‐term monkey study suggest that sclerostin inhibition represents a promising new therapeutic approach for medical conditions where increases in bone formation might be desirable, such as in fracture healing and osteoporosis.

Characterization of the Structural Features and Interactions of Sclerostin MOLECULAR INSIGHT INTO A KEY REGULATOR OF Wnt-MEDIATED BONE FORMATION

The secreted glycoprotein sclerostin has recently emerged as a key negative regulator of Wnt signaling in bone and has stimulated considerable interest as a potential target for therapeutics designed to treat conditions associated with low bone mass, such as osteoporosis. We have determined the structure of sclerostin, which resulted in the identification of a previously unknown binding site for heparin, suggestive of a functional role in localizing sclerostin to the surface of target cells. We have also mapped the interaction site for an antibody that blocks the inhibition of Wnt signaling by sclerostin. This shows minimal overlap with the heparin binding site and highlights a key role for this region of sclerostin in protein interactions associated with the inhibition of Wnt signaling. The conserved N- and C-terminal arms of sclerostin were found to be unstructured, highly flexible, and unaffected by heparin binding, which suggests a role in stabilizing interactions with target proteins.

THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF IGE FC REVEALS AN ASYMMETRICALLY BENT CONFORMATION

The distinguishing structural feature of immunoglobulin E (IgE), the antibody responsible for allergic hypersensitivity, is the Cε2 domain pair that replaces the hinge region of IgG. The crystal structure of the IgE Fc (constant fragment) at a 2.6-Å resolution has revealed these domains. They display a distinctive, disulfide-linked Ig domain interface and are folded back asymmetrically onto the Cε3 and Cε4 domains, which causes an acute bend in the IgE molecule. The structure implies that a substantial conformational change involving Cε2 must accompany binding to the mast cell receptor FcεRI. This may be the basis of the exceptionally slow dissociation rate of the IgE-FcεRI complex and, thus, of the ability of IgE to cause persistent allergic sensitization of mast cells.

Structure and Interactions of the Human Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor

Background: The inhibitory leukocyte receptor PD-1 binds two ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2. Results: Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis and rigorous binding and thermodynamic measurements reveal the structure of, and the mode of ligand recognition by, PD-1. Conclusion: PD-L1 and PD-L2 bind differently to PD-1 and much more weakly than expected. Significance: Potent inhibitory signaling can be initiated by weakly interacting receptors. PD-1, a receptor expressed by T cells, B cells, and monocytes, is a potent regulator of immune responses and a promising therapeutic target. The structure and interactions of human PD-1 are, however, incompletely characterized. We present the solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based structure of the human PD-1 extracellular region and detailed analyses of its interactions with its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2. PD-1 has typical immunoglobulin superfamily topology but differs at the edge of the GFCC′ sheet, which is flexible and completely lacks a C″ strand. Changes in PD-1 backbone NMR signals induced by ligand binding suggest that, whereas binding is centered on the GFCC′ sheet, PD-1 is engaged by its two ligands differently and in ways incompletely explained by crystal structures of mouse PD-1·ligand complexes. The affinities of these interactions and that of PD-L1 with the costimulatory protein B7-1, measured using surface plasmon resonance, are significantly weaker than expected. The 3–4-fold greater affinity of PD-L2 versus PD-L1 for human PD-1 is principally due to the 3-fold smaller dissociation rate for PD-L2 binding. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction is entropically driven, whereas PD-1/PD-L2 binding has a large enthalpic component. Mathematical simulations based on the biophysical data and quantitative expression data suggest an unexpectedly limited contribution of PD-L2 to PD-1 ligation during interactions of activated T cells with antigen-presenting cells. These findings provide a rigorous structural and biophysical framework for interpreting the important functions of PD-1 and reveal that potent inhibitory signaling can be initiated by weakly interacting receptors.

Upregulation of FcϵRI on human basophils by IgE antibody is mediated by interaction of IgE with FcϵRI

Abstract Background: IgE is now known to upregulate the expression of FcϵRI on human basophils. It is not known which receptor on basophils mediates this process of upregulation. Objective: We sought to determine whether galectin-3, FcϵRII (CD23), or FcϵRI were involved in the upregulation of FcϵRI by IgE. Methods: The role of galectin-3 was examined by measuring the influence of α-lactose on upregulation. Basophils were examined for expression of FcϵRII (CD23) by flow cytometry and messenger (m)RNA expression. Functional discrimination between binding to FcϵRII or FcϵRI was examined through the use of mutant IgE-Fc fragments or anti-FcϵRII antibody. Results: Upregulation of FcϵRI on basophils in the presence of IgE was not altered by coincubation with α-lactose, eliminating a role for galectin-3. Basophils were not found to express FcϵRII, as determined by flow cytometry with enriched basophil preparations or RT-PCR with highly purified basophil preparations. A mutant of the Fc fragment of IgE (IgE-Fc), which binds to FcϵRI with a greater than 10-fold lower affinity than IgE or wild-type IgE-Fc but exhibits no change in affinity for FcϵRII, allowed us to distinguish between the functions of the two Fc receptors. The mutant (R334S; Henry et al 1997) was required at about 30-fold higher concentration than the wild-type IgE-Fc for the same stimulation of FcϵRI expression on basophils, thus excluding a role for FcϵRII in the response. In addition, treatment of basophils with anti-FcϵRII antibody (MHM6), which is known to be competitive with IgE, had no effect on the expression of FcϵRI or the ability of IgE to upregulate expression of FcϵRI. Conclusion: Collectively, these data indicate that IgE interacts with FcϵRI to upregulate its expression on human basophils. (J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:492-8.)

The structure of the IgE Cepsilon2 domain and its role in stabilizing the complex with its high-affinity receptor FcepsilonRIalpha.

The stability of the complex between IgE and its high-affinity receptor, FcɛRI, on mast cells is a critical factor in the allergic response. The long half-life of the complex of IgE bound to this receptor in situ (∼2 weeks, compared with only hours for the comparable IgG complex) contributes to the permanent sensitization of these cells and, hence, to the immediate response to allergens. Here we show that the second constant domain of IgE, Cɛ2, which takes the place of the flexible hinge in IgG, contributes to this long half-life. When the Cɛ2 domain is deleted from the IgE Fc fragment, leaving only the Cɛ3 and Cɛ4 domains (Cɛ3–4 fragment), the rate of dissociation from the receptor is increased by greater than 1 order of magnitude. We report the structure of the Cɛ2 domain by heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy and show by chemical shift perturbation that it interacts with FcɛRIα. By sedimentation equilibrium we show that the Cɛ2 domain binds to the Cɛ3–4 fragment of IgE. These interactions of Cɛ2 with both FcɛRIα and Cɛ3–4 provide a structural explanation for the exceptionally slow dissociation of the IgE–FcɛRIα complex.

A tumor-associated β1 integrin mutation that abrogates epithelial differentiation control

SCC4 human keratinocytes are derived from a squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue and undergo very little spontaneous differentiation. Introduction of a wild-type β1 integrin subunit into SCC4 cells stimulates differentiation, suggesting either that the cells have a defect in the integrin signaling pathways that control differentiation or that the β1 subunit itself is defective. Here we describe a heterozygous mutation in the SCC4 β1 subunit. The mutation, T188I, maps to the I-like domain. It results in constitutive activation of ligand binding, irrespective of the partner α subunit, in solid phase assays with recombinant protein and in living cells. The mutation promotes cell spreading, but not proliferation, motility, or invasiveness. It results in sustained activation of Erk MAPK independent of cell spreading. When introduced into SCC4 keratinocytes, the wild-type β1 integrin stimulates differentiation, whereas the mutant is inactive. Activation of β1 integrins in normal keratinocytes also suppresses differentiation. These results establish, for the first time, mutation as a mechanism by which integrins can contribute to neoplasia, because the degree of differentiation in epithelial cancers is inversely correlated with prognosis. They also provide new insights into how integrins regulate keratinocyte differentiation.

Characterization of the Interaction of Sclerostin with the Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein (LRP) Family of Wnt Co-receptors

Background: Sclerostin, an inhibitor of Wnt signaling, binds to the β-propeller domain-containing Wnt co-receptors LRP6 and LRP4. Results: An NXI motif in sclerostin mediates interactions with LRP6 (but not LRP4) and blocks Wnt1 signaling. Conclusion: The sclerostin/LRP6 interaction shares features with the well characterized nidogen/laminin interaction. Significance: NXI motifs are important in mediating interactions with β-propeller containing proteins. LRP5 and LRP6 are proteins predicted to contain four six-bladed β-propeller domains and both bind the bone-specific Wnt signaling antagonist sclerostin. Here, we report the crystal structure of the amino-terminal region of LRP6 and using NMR show that the ability of sclerostin to bind to this molecule is mediated by the central core of sclerostin and does not involve the amino- and carboxyl-terminal flexible arm regions. We show that this structured core region interacts with LRP5 and LRP6 via an NXI motif (found in the sequence PNAIG) within a flexible loop region (loop 2) within the central core region. This sequence is related closely to a previously identified motif in laminin that mediates its interaction with the β-propeller domain of nidogen. However, the NXI motif is not involved in the interaction of sclerostin with LRP4 (another β-propeller containing protein in the LRP family). A peptide derived from the loop 2 region of sclerostin blocked the interaction of sclerostin with LRP5/6 and also inhibited Wnt1 but not Wnt3A or Wnt9B signaling. This suggests that these Wnts interact with LRP6 in different ways.

Crystal structure of IgE bound to its B-cell receptor CD23 reveals a mechanism of reciprocal allosteric inhibition with high affinity receptor FcεRI

The role of IgE in allergic disease mechanisms is performed principally through its interactions with two receptors, FcεRI on mast cells and basophils, and CD23 (FcεRII) on B cells. The former mediates allergic hypersensitivity, the latter regulates IgE levels, and both receptors, also expressed on antigen-presenting cells, contribute to allergen uptake and presentation to the immune system. We have solved the crystal structure of the soluble lectin-like “head” domain of CD23 (derCD23) bound to a subfragment of IgE-Fc consisting of the dimer of Cε3 and Cε4 domains (Fcε3-4). One CD23 head binds to each heavy chain at the interface between the two domains, explaining the known 2:1 stoichiometry and suggesting mechanisms for cross-linking membrane-bound trimeric CD23 by IgE, or membrane IgE by soluble trimeric forms of CD23, both of which may contribute to the regulation of IgE synthesis by B cells. The two symmetrically located binding sites are distant from the single FcεRI binding site, which lies at the opposite ends of the Cε3 domains. Structural comparisons with both free IgE-Fc and its FcεRI complex reveal not only that the conformational changes in IgE-Fc required for CD23 binding are incompatible with FcεRI binding, but also that the converse is true. The two binding sites are allosterically linked. We demonstrate experimentally the reciprocal inhibition of CD23 and FcεRI binding in solution and suggest that the mutual exclusion of receptor binding allows IgE to function independently through its two receptors.

Automated protein-ligand interaction screening by mass spectrometry.

Identifying protein-ligand binding interactions is a key step during early-stage drug discovery. Existing screening techniques are often associated with drawbacks such as low throughput, high sample consumption, and dynamic range limitations. The increasing use of fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) demands that these techniques also detect very weak interactions (mM K(D) values). This paper presents the development and validation of a fully automated screen by mass spectrometry, capable of detecting fragment binding into the millimolar K(D) range. Low sample consumption, high throughput, and wide dynamic range make this a highly attractive, orthogonal approach. The method was applied to screen 157 compounds in 6 h against the anti-apoptotic protein target Bcl-x(L). Mass spectrometry results were validated using STD-NMR, HSQC-NMR, and ITC experiments. Agreement between techniques suggests that mass spectrometry offers a powerful, complementary approach for screening.